Boots,+Ball+and....+Bra?+Women+in+Sport

Discuss the involvement of primary school aged girls in sport, and what happens to this involvement as they reach adolescence. Discuss the benefits or otherwise of girls/boys only physical education classes. Describe what programs have worked/not worked to keep girls and young women active through adolescence Name: Livana White Student number: 7568355 Tutor: Jacinda Wilson Tutorial: Thursday 4-5pm Sepp Blatter, the president of FIFA, was quoted in 2004 in the UK Guardian newspaper commenting on increasing popularity in women’s football:
 * Running Like a Girl: How Equitable is the Playing Field When it Comes to Women in Sport? **

“Let the women play in more feminine clothes like they do in volleyball… They could, for example have tighter shorts… Female players are pretty.” (Christenson, & Kelso, 2004).


 * ARTEFACT **

The artefact I have selected is a photograph of a women’s gridiron team playing in the lingerie football league (LFL) in America. Aspects of this picture illustrate an ordinary recount of a football game: a regular playing field, protective gear and teammates huddling supportively. However, a noticeable difference may be seen in what these women are wearing, or rather, what they //aren’t// wearing. When compared to a men’s football uniform, it’s fair to say that many viewers tune in to watch the players, rather than the game. I believe this picture depicts the apparent novelty that women’s sports still represent after so many years of fighting for equal rights.

Gender inequalities within sport have been associated with lower participation rates in exercise and physical activity, particularly in adolescent girls (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). The negative health consequences of inactivity, both physically and mentally, have been widely documented. As with any health burden, this results in an increased demand on public resources and thereby an increased economic burden for us all to bear. The obesity epidemic is rising alarmingly all over the world, and Australia is no exception. In the period from 1995-2008 the proportion of 13-17 year old girls classified as overweight rose from 12% to 20%, while in 2005, 54% of Australian adults were classified as overweight or obese, an increase of 10% in 10 years (ABS, 2008, & 2005). Resulting as a combination of poor nutrition and decreased physical activity, obesity is related to chronic diseases including diabetes mellitus, hypertension, stroke and cardiovascular disease (World Health Organisation, 2003), all of which place strain on the public health system. The total annual cost for obesity of Australian adults and children is approximately $58 billion (ABS, 2009). Research indicates that overweight children are more likely to grow into overweight adults (Southard, & Southard, 2006), underlining the importance of participating physical activity throughout life. The relationship between female’s attitudes and exercise is a complex one. Physical activity has been shown to have benefits of increasing self-esteem and positive body image, and better concentration, memory and learning (Australian Sports Commission, 1999), although as the above picture conveys, this may not always be the case. Perceptions of gender norms in sport are still highly prevalent in society and success in sport has long been a sign of masculinity, consequently, in order to be considered feminine, women feel as though they need to portray a strong traditionally feminine image. This leads to self-objectification for both female athletes and the general population, which has been shown to lead to body dissatisfaction, eating disorders and depression (Harrison, & Fredrickson, 2003).
 * PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUE: **

Results from the survey of Children’s participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics every 3 years show that boy’s involvement in sport is higher across all age groups, with the largest gap occurring at 12-14 years. This decline of female interest in sports and physical activity upon reaching puberty and progressing into high school is a concerning worldwide trend sparking research in many countries. The ABS (2009) identified netball, swimming and dancing as the most popular sports for girls, while AFL and soccer remain as male-dominated sports, asserting the notion that perceptions of gender norms are still highly prevalent in society. Koivula (2001) investigated what characteristics constituted a sport that is perceived as feminine, masculine or gender neutral. Feminine sports tend to conform to traditional ideas of femininity, are non-aggressive and include a focus on looks. Masculine sports usually involve body contact and carry an aggressive attitude. It has also been found that gender perception varies between individuals and between the sexes, indicating that what one may find masculine, another may not. It may be this increased awareness of gender stereotyping when venturing into secondary school deterring girls from specific sports, or even physical activity in general. In order to better understand boys and girls attitudes towards girls participating in physical activity Vu, Murrie, Gonzalez, and Jobe (2006) conducted interviews and focus groups with adolescents. Although girls had a more positive attitude towards physically active females, the boys tended to consider them “tomboys”, boys were listed as the biggest deterrent for girls participation in physical activity. Seemingly, it is not necessarily girls attitudes causing a drop in activity, but the effect of the boys on the girls. Koivula (1999) studied the difference between genders in the reasons as to why one participates in exercise. Males regarded competition as an important reason, while women preferred to exercise for appearance reasons. While these results are supportive of traditional gender roles in sport, what about the females that do wish to be taken seriously in sport? Is this perhaps a case of deciding how equitable we WANT the field to be? Vu et al. (2006) stated that many boys taunted girls during physical activity classes, discouraging their participation. However, there was a small group of girls that used the name-calling and discouragement as a motivator, trying even harder to prove them wrong. Surveys conducted by the NSW Department of Sports and Recreation have indicated that teenage girls report lack of skill and lack of energy as reasons for avoiding sport and physical activity All of the points so far have eventuated to a suggested solution trialled by some schools to encourage female adolescent activity in the form of single-sex physical education classes. McKenzie, Prochaska, Sallis, & LaMaster (2005) performed an observational study to measure the difference in physical activity levels during single-sex and coeducational PE classes. Their results showed a higher level of overall physical activity by boys and girls in coeducational classes. However, single-sex classes were beneficial for girls to develop and refine skills in a non-competitive environment. This finding is important as surveys by the NSW Department of Sports and Recreation indicated that a lack of skill is one of the deterrents of physical activity for teenage girls. A randomised control trial conducted by the University of South Carolina found a higher physical activity level in and out of class for teenage girls in single-sex classes (Pate, et al., 2005). This was centred around a school-based intervention attempting to spark an interest in physical activity and develop skills. The study included dancing, aerobics and martial arts as well as a choice of competitive sports. Although there are many benefits for single-sex classes, there are also disadvantages. McKenzie et al. (2005) found higher levels of overall physical activity in coeducational classes. This is supported by a Hannon & Ratliffe (2005) report of undifferentiated activity levels in a game-play setting between single-sex and coeducational classes. Results from Vu et al. (2006) state that for some girls, the presence of boys provided motivation. Remarks and taunts from boys can instil a sense of determination, increasing effort and activity levels, although it should be noted that this occurred in the minority and most girls noted boys as a discouragement. Aside from the many ‘pros and cons’ and much contradictory research, Tergerson & King (2002) report that the most important motivator in physical activity is having a friend to exercise with, regardless of how the class is composed in terms of gender. In Australia current strategies targeting physical activity levels in school children and adolescents aim to integrate physical activity into the curriculum, however there isn’t a national policy specifically aimed at female adolescents. In New South Wales the ‘Girls in Sport Intervention and Research Project’ was launched in October 2008 as part of the Premiers Sporting Challenge to measure the success of various strategies to improve participation levels of girls in years 8-10 (New South Wales Department Education and Training, 2007). Key points included the introduction of non-traditional sports such as pilates, the choice of female-only PE classes, lunch-time sporting activities and the involvement of teachers in activities. A case study of Thornton Public School (New South Wales Department Education and Training, 2008) indicated that girls were hesitant to use play equipment because it was usually dominated by boys. A playground timetable was developed to allow specific times for girls to use the equipment, they were taught skills such as handball to ensure their inclusion in games and discussion on playground use and gender issues were introduced into the classroom. One of the biggest barriers to gaining equality in sport is the beliefs and attitudes of both males and females towards female roles and abilities. Much literature is focused around this subject, examining traditional views, the effects current coverage of sports has on women, and where the industry may be heading in the future.
 * LITERATURE REVIEW: **

It has been alleged that sports and physical education classes are often an arena for highlighting and enacting perceived gender norms, although we’ve come a long way in terms of gender equality, females are still fighting an uphill battle to prove that they are in fact worthy opponents. In society sex and gender are often used interchangeably; however sex is a reference to the biological difference between males and females, while gender is associated with the characteristics thought to be typical of a male or female (Schmalz, & Kerstetter, 2006). Schmalz and Kersetter (2006) report that from 2 years of age children are aware of and conform to gender norms of society, underlining the importance of considering the messages that are being conveyed in the media and all around us. Individuals who don’t conform to stereotypical views of each gender, are often the victims of stigma, commonly labelled as gay or lesbian (Schmalz & Kersetter, 2006, & Christeen et al., 2001). So how are female athletes represented in the media? Inequities in media coverage of females are discussed by Christeen, Hartley, & Paris (2001) and include a significant under representation of women’s sports in comparison to men, when covered tended to emphasise femininity and give the impression of being less competitive. It is these impressions which are instilled into children, making young females believe that in order to be successful they must conform to culturally structured views of femininity. Simone de Beauvoir said in 1949: “man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him” (DeLauretis, 1990), and this is still relevant in sports, as there is still the divide of men’s and women’s sports, feminine and masculine. In western society it’s ridiculous to see such a double standard still prevalent after so many years of rallying for equal rights, but in some countries women are still fighting for their basic human rights today. Brunei and Saudi Arabia are among the countries with men-only Olympic teams, stating that women aren’t permitted to participate due to cultural and religious reasons. This is another example of the way in which cultural views are reflected in sport. It’s difficult to determine the extent of the exclusion of females in many parts of the world because most research is based in the US, UK and Australia. The feminist theory gained momentum in the 1970s when women began to ask the question of what it actually means to be a woman (De Lauretis, 1990). In order to break barriers in relation to equality in sport, we must first remove the “otherness” associated with being a woman, in relation to man.
 * CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS: **

I believe that the photograph above is a fitting representation of the gender inequalities that exist within sporting culture, as it is one example of the many double standards. Male football players are admired and revered for their sporting prowess; the speed, agility and power they exert, while female athletes receive attention for their cup size, how much they weigh and who they’re dating. It seems at the moment, women in sport are an apparent novelty as opposed to serious athletes. As demonstrated by the lingerie football league, sex still sells. Gaining equality isn’t just about changing uniforms and magazine covers. In order to make a real difference, there must be a major shift in attitude. The stigma attached to the defiance of gender perceptions is a real concern. Sport is still considered a masculine domain, deterring many young girls from participating in physical activity. By eliminating this stigma girls and women can feel confident about participating in sports and physical activity. If we can change people’s attitude and show them that sport //isn’t// just for men, that girls and women are happy and healthy in many different ways, hopefully more females can participate and help to curb the sweeping obesity epidemic, while feeling good about themselves. I'm glad that I have been able to research a topic which effects so many people, and an issue that, male or female, you can't help but have an opinion on. I was shocked to learn the extent to which girls and women are ostracised simply for participating in sport, regardless of whether they are successful or not. I hope that females will be able to achieve the equality they've fought so hard for in other aspects of society, on the sporting field.
 * ANALYSIS OF ARTEFACT: **

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2005). //Overweight and Obesity in Adults, Australia, 2004-05.// Retrieved from [] Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). //Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2005-2006.// Retrieved from [] Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2008). //National Health Survey: Summary of Results, 2007-2008 (Reissue).// Retrieved from []= Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). //Children’s Participation in Cultural and Leisure Activities, Australia, Apr, 2009//. Retrieved from []= Australian Sports Commission. (1999). //National Policy on Women and Girls in Sport, Recreation and Physical Activity 1999-2002//. Retrieved from [] Christeen, G., Hartley, A., & Paris, J. (2001). Focus on Communication in Sport: The Representation of Female Athletes in Textual and Visual Media. //Corporate Communications, 6//(2), 94-101. Christenson, M., & Kelso, P. (2004, January 16). Soccer Chief’s Plan to Boost Women’s Game? Hotpants. //The Guardian.// Retrieved from [] De Lauretis, T. (1990). Eccentric Subjects: Feminist Theory and Historical Consciousness. //Feminist Studies, 16//(1), 115. Hannon, J., & Ratliffe, T. (2005). Physical Activity Levels in Coeducational and Single-Gender High School Physical Education Settings. //Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 24//(2), 149-64 Harrison, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). Women’s Sports Media, Self-Objectification, and Mental Health in Black and White Adolescent Females. //Journal of Communication, 53//(2), 216-32 Koivula, N. (1999). Sport Participation: Differences in Motivation and Actual Participation Due to Gender Typing. //Journal of Sport Behaviour, 22//(3), 360-380 Lyu, M., & Gill, D. L. (2011). Perceived Physical Competence, Enjoyment and Effort in Same-Sex and Coeducational Physical Education Classes. //Educational Psychology, 31//(2), 247-60. McKenzie, T. L., Prochaska, J. J., Sallis, J. F., LaMaster, K. J. (2004). Coeducational and Single-Sex Physical Education in Middle Schools: Impact on Physical Activity. //Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 75//(4), 446-9. New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2007). Girls in Sport. Retrieved from [] New South Wales Department of Education and Training. (2008). Girls, Sport and Physical Activity K-6. Retrieved from [] Pate, R. R., Ward, D. S., Saunders, R. P., Felton, G., Dishman, R. K., Dowda, M. (2005). Promotion of Physical Activity Among High School Girls: A Randomised Controlled Trial. //American Journal of Public Health, 95//(9), 1582-87. Schmalz, D. L., & Kerstetter, D. L. (2006). Girlie Girls and Manly Men: Children’s Stigma Consciousness of Gender in Sports and Physical Activities. //Journal of Leisure Research, 38//(4), 536-557. Southard, D. R., & Southard, B. H. (2006). Promoting Physical Activity in Children with MetaKenkoh. //Clinical and Investigative Medicine, 29//(5), 293-7. Tergerson, J. L., & King, K. A. (2002). Do perceived cues, benefits and barriers to physical activity differ between male and female adolescents. //Journal of School Health, 72(9)//, 374-80. Vu, M. B., Murrie, D., Gonzalez, V., Jobe, J. B. (2006). Listening to Boys and Girls Talk About Girls’ Physical Activity Behaviours, //Health, Education and Behaviour Journal 33//(1), 81-96. World Health Organization. (2011). Controlling the Global Obesity Epidemic. Retrieved from []
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 * REFLECTIONS: **


 * @Major Social Changes and Behaviours Seen in Gen Y **

Great wiki! You made some great points and really made me think about our world at the moment. It seems the more we have, the less happy we are. Your artefact was really thoughtful and tackled this issue from a different perspective. The house is a fitting metaphor and I like that it was pinned on the fridge, sort of a 'display case' for most families where important bills, messages and pictures are usually found. There's no denying the large scale of this public health issue and that we're hearing more about it, whatever the reason. As you made the point, perhaps it is increasing in prevalence or maybe people are just more comfortable being open than they were. I found the link between divorced and mixed families and mental illness particularly interesting. The early years of one's life is really important for establishing stability, and if a child isn't gaining this stability from family it would be very hard to develop. It would be hard in these times to define a 'typical' family. You also made a point about low self-esteem and its relation to mental illness, do you believe this to be stemming from our inescapable world of advertising and media? I really enjoyed reading your wiki and found it really thought-provoking.


 * Indigenous lives Government lies - Child maltreatment and The Intervention **

You did such great work covering this topic. I found your wiki very insightful and thorough. I thought your artefact was great, such a simple picture that symbolises so much. One sign is such a divide between two aspects of society. I was shocked by many of your statistics, especially to learn that indigenous children are 10 times more likely to be placed in care. This is way too many. It is also disappointing how difficult it must be to obtain correct statistics due to underestimation. Considering how many families choose to hide their abuse, or turn the other cheek. I liked that you raised the point that many indigenous people mistrust police and justice as a contributing factor to under-reporting. I also found the amount of abuse and early sexualisation of children saddening. It seems that overcrowding in these communities is another prevalent issue to be considered. I enjoyed your application of critical thinking, referring to the issue as 'the indigenous problem', and questioning the government's motives as to why all of a sudden this has been named as an 'emergency'. Are these indigenous communities just pawns in the game of government policies? Its unfortunate that many recommendations from the report haven't been integrated, perhaps they're been thrown into the "too hard" pile. Overall I found your wiki to be interesting and insightful. great work.