Women’s+position+as+objectified+‘sex+symbols’+in+the+male+dominated+sporting+arena

**Women's Position as Objectified 'Sex Symbols' in the Male Dominated Sporting Arena:** **The consequences of sexually objectifying women**

By Emmi Smith 8277923  Tutor: Emily Mann

** Cultural Artefact ** media type="youtube" key="j9UFpKHQOdA" height="468" width="832" align="center"

This video appeared on a website blog titled ‘Objectification in Female Athletes’. It appears that the creator, Hae Kyung Ku produced this video for a school or university assignment; however it offers an excellent representation of the consequences of sexually objectifying women. The video begins by presenting images of objectified women in sports, magazines and music videos. It then poses the question, ‘Is objectification of women a problem’. The video continues by showcasing images of the consequences of sexual objectification such as eating disorders and anorexia, sexual violence against women such as abuse and rape, mental problems including low self-esteem and depression and the reinforcement of gender-role stereotypes. It clearly depicts the notion that women are under constant pressure to appear and act in a certain way and they often go through extreme measures to achieve these implausible expectations. It is evident from this video that when women appear in the media, they are often portrayed as either victims or sex symbols which is closely related to our perception of women within our society. **Public Health Issue** In today’s society, sporting practices reflect, construct and perpetuate beliefs that the sporting arena is strictly a male domain. Females are perceived as inferior to their superior male counterparts  (Lenskyj, 1998) . In sports, males are the advantaged gender group as in many civilizations, sporting success rests heavily on speed, strength and endurance. Traditional female qualities such as flexibility and grace fall into second place ( Lenskyj, 1998) . Men’s bodies and performances are often used as the benchmark for measuring athletic success, while women’s bodies and performances are used to ridicule low-achieving males, for example in the expression, ‘you run like a girl’ ( Lenskyj, 1998) . Female athletes are greatly under-reported in the media and when they do make an appearance, the media images provide enormous potential for depicting women in objectified ways  (Daniels & Wartena, 2011). <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> This type of representation of female athletes can cause male viewers to focus on women’s physical appearance rather than their physical abilities ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Daniels & Wartena, 2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Objectification of women in the media is a serious issue in today’s society as it can lead to a host of physical, social and mental problems among women of all ages <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Lenskyj, 1998) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">**Literature Review**

<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">A vast array of literature has shown that the mass media in westernised societies commonly portrays narrow and stereotypical representations of women and femininity that convey unrealistic standards for physical appearance and transmit the notion that women are sexual objects to be viewed and evaluated by men ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Daniels & Wartena, 2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Title IX was established to prevent discrimination and exclusion in educational settings on the basis of gender (Adams & Tuggle, 2004). Since the passage of Title IX in 1972, the number of girls participating in sports has increased considerably, however representation of female athletes in the media is still lacking <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Daniels & Wartena, 2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Lenskyj (1998) reveals that female athletes receive less coverage in the media than their male counterparts, despite their increased involvement in the last two decades. The media coverage women do receive often fails to represent their athletic abilities and instead focuses on their femininity and physical attributes and tends to showcase them in submissive, sexualized poses ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Lenskyj, 1998) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">.

Previous research has suggested that many believe that sport is a male dominated field, one in which females do not belong. The literature reveals that female athletes tend to receive less coverage than male athletes in newspapers, sports shows and sports magazines. Eastman and Billings (2000) found that there is a high degree of embedded favouritism towards men and men athletes in the newspapers such as the //New York Times// and //USA Today//. In a study undertaken by Adams and Tuggle (2004), they concluded that national programs such as //CNN’s Sports Tonight// and //ESPN’s SportsCenter// devoted only 5% of their airtime to women’s athletics. It has also been suggested that female athletes receive less coverage in sports magazines such as //Sports Illustrated// (Thomsen, Bower & Barnes, 2004).

The literature suggests that the media often focuses on female activities that are deemed as femininely acceptable within society. Higgs, Weiller & Martin (2003) studied the television coverage of the Olympic Games in 1996 and found that female athletes received less coverage for team sports as they are characterised as more masculine and aggressive. The majority of the coverage of females in the Olympics was dedicated to individuals in sports such as gymnastics and swimming. These sports are depicted as more feminine and are acceptable activities that females can compete in within traditional social standards. Higgs et al. (2003) also concluded that female athletes tend to be feminized by camera shots and commentators who focus on their beauty, emotion and weaknesses to maintain the concept that female athletes are inferior to their male counterparts. In the NBC Olympic game coverage, it was found that female athletes accounted for 84% of the gymnastics coverage, 60% of the cycling coverage and 67% of the tennis and rowing coverage. Women’s participation in team sports such as basketball were allocated shorter coverage time and the coverage often showed snippets of the game in comparison to male athletes whose games were televised from beginning to end (Higgs & Weiller, 1994).

The literature suggests that men in sports are often framed in a way that classifies them as being superior and more important to their female counterparts. Hallmark and Armstrong (1999) compared the framing and frequency of camera shots in coverage of men’s and women’s NCAA division 1 basketball games. The study found that coverage of women in games in comparison to men employed fewer camera shots and graphics and consumed significantly less coverage time. The researchers concluded that the framing of camera shots in the male games appealed to viewers by providing close-ups, full court shots and discrete on screen graphics. Female games contained more full screen graphics directing the viewer away from the action and making it appear that the game was not important or captivating (Hallmark & Armstrong, 1999).

It is clear from the research that sexualised images of female athletes in the media could prompt males to view them as merely an object. A research study undertaken by <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> Daniels & Wartena (2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> investigated male’s reactions to images of performance athletes, sexualised athletes and sexualised models. The researchers recruited 104 adolescent boys aged between 12 and 17. The findings suggested that performance images of women evoke instrumental evaluations of women from male viewers, while the sexualized images induced objectified appraisals.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">**Cultural and Social Theory** <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The media often places emphasis on how women’s bodies appear rather then what they can achieve ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Harrison & Fredrickson 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. It is believed that this may prompt viewers to think of women’s bodies as objects rather than instruments ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Harrison & Fredrickson 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. The objectification theory can help to explain the consideration of instrumental versus objectified body perceptions <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. This framework places female bodies in a socio-cultural context and aids in exploring the effects that sports media has on viewer’s body perceptions ( <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Harrison & Fredrickson 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. The objectification theory holds that the common thread is the experience of being treated merely as a body valued primarily for its use and pleasure to others ( <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">.

Objectification can occur within interpersonal and social encounters as well as individual’s experiences with the media <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Daniels & Wartena, 2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Self-objectification occurs when one describes their body according to external traits such as how it appears rather than internal traits such as what it can do <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Harrison & Fredrickson 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. Each woman’s experiences and responses to sexual objectification can vary widely based on their age, class, ethnicity and sexuality <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(Harrison & Fredrickson 2003) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. In a culture inundated with heterosexuality, it can be expected that women’s bodies will be constantly looked at, evaluated and potentially objectified ( <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">.

Sexualised images in the media can place women at risk of sexual evaluation or even sexual violence by allowing men to believe that it is their socially sanctioned right to sexualise all females. In the context of sexualisation is the potential for sexual objectification and this occurs when a woman’s body is separated from her as a person reducing her to a mere instrument ( <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. It is important to note that not all men sexually objectify women and those who choose not to, are more likely to have stronger relationships with women as a result. Sexual objectification of women is often represented in visual media in a multitude of different ways. Firstly, a common theme in advertising is for a man to be standing staring at a women’s body. Secondly, it is evident in the media that women are portrayed with an emphasis on their body in comparison to men who are portrayed with an emphasis on their head or face ( <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. As a result, it is evident that virtually all visual media is likely to objectify women and send the message that women are objects to be evaluated <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> (Daniels & Wartena, 2011) <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">.

Another theory which can be used to explain the objectification of women in the media is the framing theory. It is believed that the television is a window or a frame on the world through which we learn about ourselves and others (Tuchman, 1978).The events chosen to be covered and the editing of the coverage to fit within time constraints constitutes framing (Adams & Tuggle, 2004). Frames call attention to particular aspects of reality and direct attention away from others. It is important to observe both the presence and absence of material in framing. It is just as important to understand what does get covered as it is to understand what doesn’t. If under-representation of women in the media continues, it will reinforce the message that women’s sports are marginal and inconsequential. The framing theory suggests that representing gender in the media especially in sports needs to be standardised to avoid the use of stereotypes (Adams & Tuggle, 2004). <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">**Analysis of the Artefact and own learning experiences** <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">This video is an excellent representation of the potential consequences of objectifying women in the media. Advertising is the foundation of the mass media and advertiser’s primary intention is to sell products. What many fail to see is that the media is not only selling products; advertisements sell concepts of love and sexuality and most importantly the concept of normalcy. To a great extent the media tells us who we are and who we should be. It conditions us to believe that our most important feature is our looks. We are taught from an early age to spend enormous amounts of time, energy and money to achieve this ‘ideal’ and to feel ashamed when we don’t meet these implausible expectations. The harsh reality is that failing is inevitable as the ‘ideal’ is based on absolute flawlessness.

With more women playing sports than ever before, it is astounding that the coverage of women’s sport in the media is not reflecting the increase in participation. It appears that the reason for this is that the people who make decisions about sport coverage want us to hold on tightly to the status quo. The people in charge of newspapers, television stations and magazines for the most part did not grow up playing sports with or against females or cheering for them. The only view they appear to have of women in relation to sports is as cheerleaders. It is really frustrating to me that people are missing out on what is really good about athletics and a lot of those really good stories are about female athletes. I believe it is important that we move beyond referring to women playing sports as ‘women’s sports’ while men playing sports as simply ‘sports’. I’d like to see sports covered as sports and sports coverage should be about who is playing, what the score is and how it happened. Too often people assume that there is just one kind of sports and that’s ‘men’s sports’. The difficult part now is to move on from this problem. I believe when a new wave of men and women come into decision-making positions, things will change. People who have grown up watching their sisters play soccer or basketball will begin to except information about females in the same way that they get information about male athletes. When this changes, I anticipate that women will be shown in the media for their physical abilities rather than their physical appearance.

**<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">Reflections **

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;">Topic: <span style="color: black; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-decoration: none;">CAGED WITHIN BODY AND MIND – An observation and discussion of the contrasting challenges faced by each nation in tackling mental health and its associated issues  <span style="display: block; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;"><span style="display: block; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;">Mark, firstly what a great title! As I was searching through the Wiki’s, I was trying to find one that would really interest me. Your page jumped out at me as you have such a captivating title. Good work on finding that artefact. It supports your topic and argument throughout your piece. After reading your wiki page, I felt quite saddened that this is actually happening in the world, especially in our own country. Too often, we as a society ostracize those with a mental illness rather than taking the time to listen and lend a helping hand. I also love that you added in your opinion and asked questions such as ‘Why do people lets abuses happen?’ This is such an important issue and I really hope a change is brought about sooner rather than later.

Topic: <span style="color: black; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;"> 'The Truth Hurts' Intercultural Perspective of the Administration of Pain Relief <span style="display: block; font-family: 'garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: left;">Jake, I really enjoyed reading your wiki as it was a topic I knew very little about. I think your artefact is great and it offers an excellent representation of many individuals in today’s society. I think this issue really comes down to equality. Its amazes me that in a country like Australia, differences still exist between cultures. I do, however think the government has come a long way and they have initiated some great programs to aid in addressing these inequalities. Overall I found your page very enjoyable to read.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">**References** <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Adams, T., & Tuggle, C. A. (2004). ESPN's SportsCenter and coverage of women's athletics: “it's a boys club". //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mass Communication and Society, 7 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(2), 237-248.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Daniels, E. A., & Wartena, H. (2011). Athlete or sex symbol: What boys think of media representations of female athletes. //Sex Roles, 65,// 566 – 579. <span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Eastman, S. T., & Billings, A. C. (2000). Sportscasting and sports reporting: The power of gender bias. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Journal of Sport & Social Issues, ////<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">24 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(2), 192-213.

Fink, J. S., & Kensicki, L. J. (2002). An imperceptible difference: Visual and textual construction of femininity in sports illustrated and sports illustrated for women. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Mass Communication & Society, 5 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(5), 317-339. <span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Fredrickson, B. L., & Roberts, T. (1997). Objectification theory: Toward understanding women’s lived experiences and mental health risks. //<span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Psychology of Women Quarterly, 21 //<span style="color: #131413; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">, 173–206.

<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Hallmark, J. R., & Armstrong, R. N. (1999, Spring). Gender equity in televised sports: A comparative analysis of men's and women's NCAA division I basketball championship broadcasts, 1991-1995. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Journal of Broadcasting & ////<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Electronic Media, 43 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(2), 222-235.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Harrison, K., & Fredrickson, B. L. (2003). Women’s sports media, self-objectification, and mental health in black and white female adolescents. //Journal of Communication, 53(2),// 216 – 232

<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Higgs, C. T., & Weiller, K. H. (1994, August). Gender Bias and the 1992 summer Olympic Games: An analysis of television coverage. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Journal of Sport & // //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Social Issues, 18 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(3), 234-246.

Higgs, C. T., Weiller, K. H., & Martin, S. B. (2003). Gender bias in the 1996 Olympic Games: A comparative analysis. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Journal of Sport & Social ////<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Issues, 27 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(1), 52-64.

<span style="color: black; font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Lenskyj, H. (1998) Inside Sport or On The Margins?: Australian Women and the Sport Media, //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif';">International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 33 //(1), 19-34.

<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Thomsen, S. R., Bower, D. W., & Barnes, M. D. (2004, August). Photographic images in women's health, fitness, and sports magazines and the physical self conception of a group of adolescent female volleyball players. //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 28 //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">(3), 266-283.

Tuchman, G. (1978). //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Making news: A study in the construction of reality //<span style="font-family: 'Garamond','serif'; font-size: 16px;">. New York: Free Press.