Women+in+the+Sporting+Arena+-+A+Long+History+of+Sexual+Inequality+and+Hegemony.

Name: Verity Gordon Student number: 08104221 Tutor: Emily Mann

__**WOMEN IN THE SPORTING ARENA:**__ __**A LONG HISTORY OF SEXUAL INEQUALITY AND HEGEMONY.**__ = = = =

** Artefact **
Sarah (Fanny) Durack was the first Australian woman to win an Olympic gold medal, when it became permissible for women to compete in the games. She was initially prohibited from competing at the 1912 Stockholm Olympic games, but gathered support for her cause, overcame the decision, and paid her own way. Fanny won the a gold medal for the 100m event, went on to break a total of 12 world records, and was a staunch campaigner for women’s rights to compete at mixed-gender sporting events (NSW State Archives, 2011). This medal is made from solid gold, circular and has a diameter of 3.3 centimeters.

=**Public Health Issue**=

The public health issue represented by this artefact is the history of women in sport, the accompanying inequalities, and the follow-on effects that are still felt today. Women’s involvement in sport has a long history, unfortunately marked by misconceptions, sexploitation, gender segregation and discrimination. However, this history also has its defining moments, when women have overcome these challenges to rise above and distinguish themselves in many varied sporting fields. As positive as these moments are, there is still a long way to come. Participation in sports by women is still substantially lower than that by men, perhaps a reflection of the low commercial and media value placed on female sports. There is a huge disparity in the media coverage of women’s sports when compared to men’s sports, with less than 10% of total coverage devoted to women’s sports (Australian Sports Commission, 2009). These lower rates of participation reek of outdated theories, both social and physical, of why women should not play sport. Unfortunately, this impacts on the health of women around the world, as playing sport teaching extremely important life skills, and has a huge range of positive physical and mental health benefits (Women’s Sport Foundation, 2011)

=**Literature Review**=

In the years following Fanny Durack ‘s historic Olympic triumph, the athletic and sporting achievements of women and girls have been abundant. In the case of the Olympic Games, the number of medals that Australian women have collected roughly equals those won by their male counterparts (Australian Sports Comission, 2011). Australian female athletes have won world championships in numerous fields, and sport participation rates are finally rising, although are not yet on par with those for males (ERASS, 2010). It has been found that not only are women underrepresented in playing roles, but also they are less likely to be found in the more prestigious non-playing roles that are situated toward the top of the organisational hierarchy (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2010).

These poor participation rates are disappointing, and frankly, rather worrying, as the mental and physical health benefits of sport are widely acknowledged, along with the associated social advantages of sports. Involvement in sports, especially whilst in the formative years, has been proven to lower obesity/overweight, cancer, heart disease, osteoporosis, chronic diseases later in life, substance abuse, sexual risk-taking behaviours, and detrimental mental illnesses (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2004). Sport can also have a positive effect on self-esteem, education, leadership skills, social behaviours and body image (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2004), all of which are crucial aspects of development in girls and women. These health benefits and the costs associated with them emphasise the importance of rectifying the gender inequalities in the sporting arena, which has historically been wholly dominated by men.

The roles of women in sport have traditionally been in ‘feminine’ or ‘ladylike’ areas, such as golf, tennis, croquet, swimming, and other delicate sports, and these sportswomen were expected to behave in an accordingly feminine manner (Hartmann-Tews & Pfister, 2003). These rigid social guidelines have been relaxed somewhat, with women now involved in the wide range of sports previously only deemed appropriate for men. However, there seems to have been a trade off, of sorts. Perhaps in order to preserve the perceived femininity of sportswomen across the board, it is all too common now for these accomplished, skilled women to be marketed to the male public in magazine features, in which they are objectified, scantily-clad, sexually posed, and often with no mention of their sporting prowess (Brace-Govern, 2010). The alternative representation of sportswomen is in that other all-important womanly role: that of the wife, housekeeper and mother (Brandt & Carstens, 2009).

Feminism and women’s activism experienced a resurgence in the 1960’s, in response to continued gender stereotyping, and the classification by sports sociologists of “sex appropriate sports” (Brace-Govern, 2010). The social structure of sport was explored in the 1970’s by feminists seeking answers to the low rates of sporting participation of women, with suggestions that the traditional patriarchal society limited the involvement of females by enforcing social and cultural gender roles (Brace-Govern 2010). For example, women lacked personal free time and the necessary resources to participate in leisure activities, and they were expected to aid the leisure activities of others, mainly their husbands and children (Brace-Govern 2010). This is especially true for lower and working class women, who did not experience the luxury of the leisure time enjoyed by their upper-class sisters (Brace-Govern, 2010). Gender bias and inequality in sports is a topic of discussion around the world. Governments are establishing and funding sporting bodies such as The International Working Group on Women and Sport (IWG) and the Australian Womensport & Recreation Association (AWRA). The Australian Government alone devotes 3.3 million dollars to grants and sporting scholarships for women. Added to the government organisations, there are a multitude of private associations and charities working toward equality for women in sport, offering legal advice, scolarships, information and education to women and girls. The award winning Women’s Sports Foundation (WSF) was founded by Tennis champion Billie Jean King, and is an exceptional example of a nonprofit charitable organisation. They actively campaign for gender equality in sport, and educate, fund and encourage girls and women to be inform about and involved in sport. It has been hailed as one of the most influential voices of females in sports, and utilises a successful method of action (WSF, 2011).

In the United States of America, much of the improvements made in gender equality in sport are largely due to a federal statute called Title IX. Title IX is the law prohibiting sexual discrimination in federally funded education programs and activities, and has been heralded as a main facilitator for change and increased female participation numbers (Brake, 2001). Laws against gender discrimination, including in sport, are helpful for women looking to be treated as an equals. However, Australia and many other countries have gender discrimination laws in place, and yet female involvement in athletics and the sporting field is still far below equal. So, if the laws aren’t effective, what can be done to rectify this situation, and work toward an equal future?

The media is a powerful and ever-present force, a source of information presented to the public through so many different outlets. Yet the media does not utilise this power to present and endorse happy, healthy and successful sportswomen to the public, and if they do, it is often in a sexualised manner (Brace-Govern 2010), in gender role stereotypes (WSF, 2011), or in a minimalistic style, with less than 10% of media total Australian media coverage dedicated to female sports (Australian Sports Commission, 2009). Research has shown that a lack of female sporting leaders is responsible for the lacklustre attitude of high school girls toward sports (WSF, 2011). More media coverage, partraying sportswomen in a similar light to the way sportsmen are portrayed, devoid of ‘gendered’ language, and showing them as accomplished and strong, would certainly change attitudes and encourage athletic participation (Hartmann-Tews & Pfister, 2003). Another area of potential improvement is school-based sport and physical activities, as these behaviours learnt in the formative years, alongside their accompanying health benefits, carry over to the adult years (WSF, 2011). It has been shown that girls who play in largely male or coed groups are more likely to continue playing sport as they mature (WSF, 2011). Along the lines of this theory, mixed gender sporting activities and groups would have a positive impact on the rates of female participation in sports, at least in school aged girls. Breaking down the gender barriers instilled by society and culture at a young age is the key to rectifying the inequality in the sporting area. Removing the traditional notion of the ‘boys club’ of sports is a beginning to the end of hegemony in Australian sporting equality.

=**Cultural and Social Analysis**=

Society is finally approaching the light at the end of the long tunnel of sexism, for example, the decreasing disparities and the occasional parity between male and female salaries (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2006) show improvement, though there is still work to be done. It has been shown, time and time again, that females have consistently lower sporting participation rates than their male counterparts (Australian ParliBureau of Statistics, 2006). So, are women just naturally less interested in sport and physical activity? Or does the explanation for these low participation rates lie buried in the sociological history of the relationship between sport and women?

Billie Jean King, a champion tennis player and long time advocate for sexual equality in sport, states, “Sports are a microcosm of society.” Gender inequality in the sporting arena certainly reflects past and present social stances on the female role in society. The World Health Organisation (2011) defines gender as “ …the socially constructed roles, behaviour, activities and attributes that a particular society considers appropriate for men and women.” Traditionally, women are portrayed as delicate, weak beings, who lack the robust health or biological structure necessary to play sport, and whose reproductive systems are jeopardised by participation in sports and physical activities ( Claire Kowalchik, 1999). Now there can be little argument that women’s status has undergone largely progressive development in the last century, however, it seems that the hegemony of society, and the patriarchal identification of men has not correspondingly weakened (Davis & Weaving, 2009). Sport is an astounding social practice, that often wields the rare power to transcend race, culture, religious beliefs, political views and so many of the other factors that divide and separate societies around the world. Therefore, it stands to reason that to bring about change and equality in sports halls around the world, all societies must commit to egalitarianism and actively work towards a common goal.

=**Analysis of Artefact**=

This gold medal, its relevance marked by its title of being the first of its kind won by an Australian woman, is a physical symbol of equality. It symbolises the breaking down of the outdated social, cultural and sexist barriers, which held women back from participating in public mixed-gender sporting events. It represents the end of this major battle, while simultaneously signifying the beginning of another: the battle to be both perceived as, and treated as, the equals of men in sporting arenas. Having critically analysed this medal, I feel it holds an important personal significance, as it symbolises my right to athleticism. Because of the efforts of the woman who toiled and sweated to win that medal, and all the others who worked tirelessly alongside her to promote the rights of women in sport and society, I, and all women in my country, now possess that right. Whilst the medal is a positive symbol, it also serves as a constant reminder of the absence of basic rights for many women like me. Those women who were born into countries or cultures where, not only do they not have these rights, but it is even illegal and punishable to participate in sport. This medal is a symbol of gender equality, for those who have it, and those who don’t. The topic of gender equality in sport, although at first outwardly straightforward, reveals to me a deeper, darker side of the sports-mad Australia. This continent is my homeland, and I have always taken for granted that women are equal to men. I have never seen fit to delve deeper, to educate myself in this area. Now I know the history, the truth, I consciously appreciate the sacrifices made by those before me. So must all women make the most of the resources dedicated to us: encourage a daughter, sister, mother to be active and play sport. The more we make sportswomen the norm, the more normal it will become.

=**References**=

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2006). //Australian Social Trends, 2005.// Retrieved October 30, 2011 from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/2f762f95845417aeca25706c00834efa/bac94ebf241b1c9cca25703b0080ccc8!OpenDocument

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2010). //Participation in Sport and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2009-10.// Retrieved from []

Australian Sports Commission, Australian Government. (2009). //Towards a Level Playing Field: sport and gender in Australian media.// Retrieved from Australian Sports Commission website []

Australian Sports Commission, Australian Government. (2010). //Participation in Exercise, Recreation and Sport.// Retrieved from Australian Sports Commission website http://www.ausport.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0018/436122/ERASS_Report_2010.pdf

Brace-Govern, J. (2010) // Representations of women's active embodiment and men's ritualized visibility in sport. //// 10 // (4), 369–396. DOI: 10.1177/1470593110382825

Brake, D.,L. (2001). //The Struggle for Sex Equality in Sport and the Theory behind Title IX// (Working Paper). Retrieved from The Berkeley Electronic Press database. []

Brandt, M., & Carstens, A. (2005). //The discourse of the male gaze: a critical analysis of the feature section 'The beauty of sport' in SA Sports Illustrated.// // 23 // (3), 233–243. doi 10.2989/16073610509486387

Hartmann-Tews, I., & Pfister, G. (2003). // Sport and women: //// social issues in international perspective. // London: UK, Psychology Press, Taylor and Francis Group.

Kowalchik, C. (1999). //The Complete Book of Running for Women.// New York: NY, Simon & Schuster Inc.

NSW Government State Records. (n.d.). Sporting Heroes. Retrieved October 30, 2011 from []

//Philosophical Perspectives on Gender in Sport and Physical Activity.// (2009). (ed. P. Davis & C. Weaving). Abingdon, OX: Routledge, Taylor and Francis Group

Women’s Sports Foundation. (2004). //The Women’s Sports Foundation Report:// //Her Life Depends On It: Sport, Physical Activity and the Health and Well-Being of American Girls.// Retrieved from the Women’s Sports Foundation website http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/home/research/articles-and-reports/mental-and-physical-health/her-life-depends-on-it-ii

World Health Organisation. (2011). Gender. Retrieved October 27, 2011 from []