Athlete+or+Sex+Symbol?

Jemma McCutcheon Student Number: n8319022 Tutor: Colleen Niland

**ATHLETE OR SEX SYMBOL?** Running Like A Girl: How Equitable Is The Playing Field When It Comes To Women In Sport?

// "…the old formula for attention-getting is as robust as ever – sex sells" //  - Nancy Augustyniak (Defender for US women's soccer team, Atlanta Beat)

**CULTURAL ARTE****FACT** This picture of the Australian women’s football team, ‘the Matildas’, was released as one of the photographs included in a nude calendar for the year 2000, entitled: ‘The Matildas: The New Fashion in Football’. It features twelve of the team members (Tracie McGovern, Sunni Hughes, Kim Revell, Alison Forman, Sharon Black, Cheryl Salisbury, Amy Taylor, Alicia Ferguson, Katrina Boyd, Sarah Cooper, Traci Bartlett and Bridgette Starr) laughing while covering themselves up from the camera. The calendar was released in late 1999 in an effort to increase the profile of women’s football in Australia in the lead up to the 2000 Olympic Games, and to raise much needed funds for their Olympic campaign. An initial press run of 15,000 sold out within a few weeks and it was largely considered a success at the time; however, many critics have ultimately considered it as a step backwards for the game by preventing the sport from being viewed on its competitive merits.

//"We did this to raise the profile of our sport and our team, so we can show people how good these girls really are."// - Warren Fisher  //(Chief Executive of the Australian Women's Soccer Association) //

**PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUE ** Sport has traditionally been an area of society that has oppressed women by limiting their opportunity to participate (Carty, 2005). Although there is clear evidence that participation levels of women’s sports have dramatically increased over the past few decades, coverage, support and acceptance of female sport in today’s society remains inferior to that of males (Adams & Tuggle, 2009). Despite the large number of female sporting achievements in recent years, women in sport are still presented in accordance with cultural stereotypes that associate femininity with dependency, submissiveness and weakness (Koivula, 2009); hence, many view the sport as inconsequential or unimportant (Cunningham, 2003). When female sport is trivialized in such a way, fewer women elect to participate in sport and today’s youth is not presented with the role models necessary for future sport enjoyment and empowerment (Cunningham, 2003).

Furthermore, not only are female athletes consistently marginalized for their perceived ‘lack of athletic ability’, but they are also regularly portrayed in a stereotypical and sexualised manner by the mass media. Many argue that these representations of femininity transmit the notion that women are sexual objects to be viewed and evaluated by men (Daniels & Wartena, 2011), and there is empirical evidence that this sexualisation can lead to issues such as self-objectification, body image dissatisfaction and increased risk of eating disorders (Swami, Steadman & Tovee, 2009). This focus on the physical attractiveness and sexuality of female athletes evokes a negative or neutral commentary on women’s athleticism (Daniels & Wartena, 2011), and thus prevents female sport from being seen as a serious and competitive game.

**<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">LITERATURE REVIEW ** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">The mass media is potent in the creation and maintenance of societal perspectives. It has the ability to shape and define common cultural and social attitudes, and therefore the media ultimately has the power to either obstruct or advance female athlete’s struggle for societal acceptance (Fink, 1998). Traditionally, sport has been viewed as an exclusively masculine activity (Pfister, 2010); throughout history women have continually been underrepresented in the world of competitive sports, and even today it has been found that only 5% of total televised sports coverage is given to females (Angelini, 2008). In fact, it wasn’t until 1992 that the relative airplay of women’s sports surpassed the coverage of sports featuring animals such as horses and dogs (Angelini, 2008). Clearly, the lack of media attention for female competitions highlights the absence of cultural acceptance in contemporary society.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Current research on women’s sport indicates that media sports coverage continues to reinforce gender difference, and reproduces traditional expectations regarding femininity and masculinity (Koivula, 1999). Stereotyping and the issue of ‘gender-appropriateness’ are considered to play significant roles in producing the lack of support and coverage for female athletes today. Knight and Giuliano (2002) explain that as female participation in sport challenges society's prescribed role for women, the mass media 'protects' them from rejection by instead emphasizing aspects other than their athleticism or talent, such as their attractiveness or sexuality. Female athletes are required to overcompensate for their masculine behaviour during participation in the sport by behaving in ‘feminine’ ways off the field (Knight & Giuliano, 2003); the result is that women are often trivialized, objectified and reduced to sex objects (Koivula, 1999).

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">The media additionally reinforces other cultural stereotypes; for example, it suggests that women should be graceful, glamorous and not participate in high intensity or contact sports (Adams & Tuggle, 2009). A study by Angelini (2009) found that of the little coverage women’s sport does receive in televised media, those given the highest amounts of air-play focus on the beauty and physical attractiveness of the athlete, such as gymnastics, synchronised swimming or figure skating. Another study by Cunningham (2003) further supported this statement, and found that women that participate in these ‘sex-appropriate’ sports received better coverage in terms of both number and length of features than those who are involved in ‘sex-inappropriate’ sports, such as boxing, wresting, weight lifting or body building. This is clearly a significant issue, as the categorization of sports based on traditional views of gender-appropriateness has been found to commonly affect an individual’s attitude towards sport and physical education participation (Koivula, 1999).

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Additionally, the role of the media in reinforcing stereotypical beliefs is further supported through a recent study, which found that male viewers are more inclined to select a broadcast which features male athletes, as they support the societal attitude that men are more physically powerful and capable than women (Angelini, 2008). Research shows that male athletes are more likely to be shown in ‘active’ poses than women (Fink, 1998), and it is a commonly held belief that male athletes display characteristics not appropriate for women, such as aggressiveness, strength, stamina and competitive spirit (Angelini, 2008). These societal beliefs concerning the acceptable gender roles are taught to us from a young age through the mass media; as a result, female athletic coverage seems to focus on sports which place an emphasis on the grace and sexuality of the athlete, as well as a focus on individual female sports in preference to team sports (Adams & Tuggle, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Upon analysis of the media’s portrayal of female athletes, it is clear that the focus is on gender first and athleticism second, whereas males are almost exclusively depicted in terms of their sporting ability (Knight & Giuliano, 2002). While men are portrayed as powerful, dominating and valued athletes, sports commentators, writers and reporters will commonly highlight the emotionality and heterosexuality of female athletes; often little or no comment is made about the women’s athletic ability or talent (Knight & Giuliano, 2002). Many argue that this is the underlying reason behind the lack of female sporting coverage in the media. Put simply, it is because of this gender-based discrimination that some believe women’s sporting ability to be inferior to that of men’s. Journalists and editors therefore argue that content is dictated by what the public wants to see, and that there is a general lack of interest in female sports (Adams & Tuggle, 2009). However, research by Adams and Tuggle (2009) has found that 50% or more of women from a variety of countries claim to watch sport on a regular basis. Furthermore, Angelini (2008) explains that there is evidence for a growing interest in women’s sporting competition. It is not without an increase in media coverage and decreased emphasis towards femininity and appearance that the issues surrounding women’s sport can be overcome.

**<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS ** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Cultural ideas are dictated by the mass media and its biases. Because many individuals turn to the media as a means for better understanding cultural norms, values and expectations (Bissell, 2004), it is clear that it plays a pivotal role in the development and portrayal of societal values. As can be seen from current literature, society and culture are crucial to understanding the issues surrounding the present portrayal of women’s sport.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Although media coverage of women’s sport in Australia remains strikingly low at just two percent of total televised air time ( United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women, 2007), the current female participation level remains strong; it has recently been found to equal the participation rate of men at sixty-six percent (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009). However, although female involvement in sport appears to be high, there is substantial evidence for a decline in participation with increasing age, and a dramatic drop is particularly evident during female adolescence (Toscos, Faber, Connelly & Upoma, 2008). Engaging in regular physical activity is of particular importance during teenage years, as there is indication of increased self-esteem and mental health (Bissell, 2004); therefore, it is critical that this issue be overcome.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Along with decreasing sporting participation levels, self-objectification is another substantial social issue among females. Objectification theory holds that society continually sexualizes the female body, depicting it as an object to be judged for the enjoyment of others (Daniels & Wartena, 2011). This tendency to objectify sporting women may have far reaching implications for both the general population and the athlete themselves. The media's role in the development of body image disorders is widely accepted; Bissell (2004) suggests that because images in sports media are lean, they too should be considered a form of ‘thin ideal media’, much in the same way photographs of models in magazines are considered a type of thinness promoting media. <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">When sporting women are depicted in this manner, research shows that females experience self-objectification and greater body dissatisfaction (Bissell, 2004). Objectification has also been found to have significant implications for women’s mental health, including heightened risk of negative body esteem and eating disorders (Daniels, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Despite these issues, women have come a long way from the days when their participation in sport was explicitly banned. Although there is still clear evidence of marginalization of female sport in the media, women in contemporary society have never had this many opportunities to participate, and support for the movement continues to expand. It now more socially acceptable for women to be toned, athletic, competitive and strong, and it is imperative that female athletes continue to push for change in order to further diminish discrimination on the basis of gender (Carty, 2005).

**<span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">ANALYSIS OF ARTEFACT AND PERSONAL REFLECTION ** <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">As can be seen, in keeping with the cultural tendency to sexualize women in media, today’s female athletes are habitually objectified by the mass media (Daniels & Wartena, 2011). The image from the 2000 Matilda’s calendar accurately depicts the heart of the issue, and is a valid example of the marginalization and gender-specific discrimination commonly experienced by female athletes. Additionally, the photograph is also an example of the extremes that women in sport are reduced to in order to gain attention and respect from society. At the time of release, Matilda’s player Amy Taylor (who was featured topless on the front of the calendar) issued a statement: //<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">"We just find that we're not getting the media attention or the publicity that we deserve and we needed to do something to lift our profile." // <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">The approach was largely effective as it was generally well received, and it also succeeded in raising money for the team’s Olympic tour; however, many critics deemed the calendar too sexually explicit.

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Personally, I feel I have gained significant insight into this public health issue, and I found the research process both interesting and rewarding. I find it upsetting to learn that so many successful and talented female athletes feel the need to sell their sexuality for publicity and attention, and I also find it saddening that they are so often reduced to these measures. Although these actions prove successful in increasing the exposure of the athlete and sport, research suggests that this reliance on sexuality over athletic accomplishment to gain attention may take away from the individual’s integrity as an athlete; by willingly objectifying their bodies, female athletes are reinforcing the system of male domination and this will not enhance the collective position of women in society (Carty, 2005).


 * <span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">LEARNING ENGAGEMENT AND REFLECTION TASK **

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Subject: Great Analysis of An Interesting Topic <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">I enjoyed reading your wiki, as I find this issue really fascinating. It's clear that the benefits of sport and exercise among children are widely known, and so I find it disappointing to learn how sporting participation among female’s declines so drastically with the onset of adolescence. Your analysis seems well researched and insightful, and I found your discussion on the link between stereotypes and body image on decreased participation particularly captivating. Your page really highlights the need for action and the overwhelming importance of the issue, and you have done a good job in identifying the many consequences young girls face if they not engage in regular physical activity. Overall, I think you have put together a really interesting wiki, well done.
 * <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Adolescent Girls Too Afraid To Play Sport Due To Body Image Issues **

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">**Is The Price We Pay For Consumer-Obsession And Individualism Worth It?** <span style="color: #000000; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 110%;">Subject:Fascinating Issue <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">As I’ve never given much thought into this issue personally, I found your wiki really fascinating to read. Your cultural artefact was very well selected, as I feel it reflected your argument perfectly and presented a great insight into the consumerist tendencies of generation Y. Your comments on individualism, mental illness, materialism and narcissism are well presented, and your discussion really caused me to reflect on the issue and my own behaviour. I also found it striking to learn that the financial cost of mental illness in 2009 was $10.6 billion, and that this figure was only for persons between the ages of 12-25 years. You have put together a really interesting and thought-provoking analysis, great job.


 * <span style="color: #4f81bd; font-family: Georgia,serif; font-size: 130%;">REFERENCES **

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Adams, T., & Tuggle, C. A. (2009). ESPN’s SportsCenter and coverage of women’s athletics: “it’s a boy’s club”. //Mass Communication and Society, 7//(2), p 237-248. doi: 10.1207/s15327825mcs0702_6

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Angelini, J. R. (2008). Television sports and athlete sex: looking at the differences in watching male and female athletes. //Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 52//(1), p 16-32. doi: 10.1080/10934520701820752

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Feature article 3: women in sport. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4156.0.55.001Feature+Article3May%202009

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Bissell, K. L. (2004) Sports model/sports mind: the relationship between entertainment and sports media exposure, sports participation, and body image distortion in division I female athletes. //Mass Communication & Society, 7//(4), p 453-473. doi: 10.1207/s15327825mcs0704_5

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Carty, V. (2005). Textual portrayals of female athletes: liberation or nuanced forms of patriarchy? //Frontiers, 26//(2), p 132-155. doi: 10.1353/fro.2005.0020 <span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Cunningham, G. B. (2003). Media coverage of women’s sport: a new look at an old problem. Physical Educator, 60(2), p 43-50. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/ehost/detail?sid=367603a2-eab5-4dc6-ab24-b498a0a4798f%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=afh&AN=10145655

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Daniels, E. A. (2009). Sex objects, athletes, and sexy athletes: how media representations of women athletes can impact adolescent girls and college women. Journal of Adolescent Research, 24(4), p 399-422. doi: 10.1177/0743558409336748

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Daniels, E. A., & Wartena, H. (2011). Athlete or sex symbol: what boys think of media representations of female athletes. //Sex Roles//. 65, p 566-579. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-9959-7

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Fink, J. S. (1998). Female athletes and the media. //Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 69//(6), p 37-45. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/ehost/detail?sid=d2ff6a84-d99d-4a07-bcf4-e2408ea2d83c%40sessionmgr114&vid=1&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=afh&AN=976551

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Knight, J. L., & Giuliano, T. A. (2003). Blood, sweat, and jeers: the impact of the media’s heterosexist portrayals on perceptions of male and female athletes. //Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26//(3), p 272-284. Retrieved from http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/ehost/detail?sid=2be265c7-e4e7-47fd-b6ff-6950a55164dc%40sessionmgr113&vid=1&hid=107&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=afh&AN=10449036

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Knight, J. L., & Giuliano, T., A. (2002). He’s a Laker; she’s a “looker”: the consequences of gender-stereotypical portrayals of male and female athletes by the print media. //Sex Roles, 45//(3/4), p 217-229. doi: 10.1023/A:1013553811620

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Koivula, N. (1999). Gender stereotyping in televised media sport coverage. //Sex Roles, 41//(7/8), p 589-604. doi: 10.1023/A:1018899522353

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Pfister, G. (2010). Women in sport – gender relations and future perspectives. //Sport in Society, 13//(2), p 234-248. doi: 10.1080/17430430903522954

<span style="font-family: Georgia,serif;">Swami, V., Steadman, L., & Tovee, M. J. (2009). A comparison of body size ideals, body dissatisfaction, and media influence between female track athletes, martial artists, and non-athletes. //Psychology of Sport and Exercise//. 10, p 609-614. doi: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.003

<span style="color: #262626; font-family: Georgia,serif;">Toscos, T., Faber, A., Connelly, K., & Upoma, A., M. (2008). Encouraging physical activity in teens – can technology help reduce barriers to physical activity in adolescent girls? //Persuasive Computing Technologies for Healthcare, 3//(3), p 218-221. doi: 10.1109/PCTHEALTH.2008.4571073

<span style="color: #262626; font-family: Georgia,serif;">United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. (2007). Women, gender equality and sport. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/Women%20and%20Sport.pdf