Women+in+Sport+-+Supported+or+Sidelined?

Dominique Fitzgerald n6886019 Tutor: Colleen Niland

** //"Girls playing sports is not about winning gold medals. It's about self-esteem, learning to compete and learning how hard you have to work in order to achieve your goals" - Jackie Joyner-Kersee// **


 * Artefact **

Artefact

This image is a view of the search results in Google search engine when I entered the search terms ‘female athlete’. The various images depict sportswomen from around the world, some of whom are pictured whilst representing themselves or their country in their chosen sport, yet the majority of the images present female athletes in a sexual manner, some of which are completely unrelated to their sports careers. There is one image which has been formatted as a chauvinistic joke, and makes a suggestive remark, demoralising both the athlete herself and the institution of women’s sport.

The increasing trend for the decline in the involvement of girls in sport as they reach adolescence is a public health issue that raises concern as many girls fail to meet Australian physical activity guidelines (Spinks, McPherson, Bain & McClure, 2006). This decline in physical activity participation can be directly linked to a number of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors, particularly the influence gender roles and expectations have on children’s sports participation (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). Consequently, various school-based intervention programs have been trialled and implemented aiming to encourage and keep girls and young women active throughout adolescence. Equity for women within the global sporting world could influence the motivation and psyche of female adolescents in sending positive gender messages about women’s sport, ostensibly improving health outcomes for young women.
 * Public health issue **

**Literature review** Physical inactivity is one of the leading modifiable risk factors for mortality and morbidity among adults, responsible for an estimated 3.2 million deaths in 2004 (World Health Organisation, 2009). Physical activity levels decline more precipitously among girls during adolescence (Kimm et al, 2002). Many adolescent girls are not active at the Australian recommended levels and perhaps as a consequence, rates of obesity and type 2 diabetes are increasing among all adolescent population groups (Pate et al, 2005). Childhood obesity is one of the most serious public health challenges of the 21st century (World Health Organisation, 2011). At least 2.6 million people each year die as a result of being overweight or obese; **c **hildhood obesity is associated with a higher chance of premature death and disability in adulthood (World Health Organisation, 2011).

Patterns of activity in adulthood are often established during adolescence, making this an important period for promoting physical activity (Telama, 2005). Prevalence rates show that adolescent girls are less active than boys; one reason for this difference may have to do with gender role orientation (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). From an early age, children show signs of recognising "appropriate" gendered behaviour and activities (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). Children's participation in sports and activities can be bound by social constructions of gender and gender stereotypes; social norms dictate that men are will display masculine characteristics whilst women are expected to display feminine characteristics (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). Examining how gender stereotypes and stigmas in sport affect children's participation is an important step toward greater understanding of perceived constraints and leisure behaviour (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006).

The determinants of girls’ participation in physical activity can be attributed to a number of intrapersonal and interpersonal factors (Eime, Payne, Casey & Harvey, 2010). This decline in physical activity rates among female adolescents can be directly linked to the self-efficacy and enjoyment girls feel when engaged in physical activity (Eime, Payne, Casey & Harvey, 2010). In their interactions with males in PE classes girls are often concerned for their safety and shy away from the heightened competitiveness boys often bring to the PE environment (Constantinou, Manson & Silverman, 2009).

Physical activity interventions in schools have the potential to reach nearly all children and adolescents; in order to develop effective interventions it is important to understand what activities are of interest to adolescent girls and to explore the factors associated with the physical activity participation of this population (Barr-Anderson et al, 2007). Within Physical Education (PE) classes, Constantinou et al (2009) suggest that many teaching strategies send condescending and stereotyped gender messages to young girls, alienating them and contributing to their decline in physical activity participation. Similarly, girls’ perceptions of what constitutes a safe and supportive environment impacts participation levels, with girls indicating that their involvement in sport is directly related to how safe they feel the playing field is and how adequately prepared and comfortable they feel in facing their opponents (Constantinou et al, 2009).

Several school-based interventions have been developed to promote physical activity among adolescent girls, targeting the modification of the formal curriculum (such as physical education classes and school sport, school environment and community links (Webber et al, 2008). This approach aims to intervene across multiple levels of influence in a students' life in a consistent and integrated way however many interventions implemented strategies with a 'one size fits all' mindset whereby all schools in a treatment group implement the same intervention (Pate et al, 2005). Given the heterogeneity of schools in terms of their goals, size, geographical location, teacher expertise, socioeconomic status, and culture, this may result in some elements of an intervention being inappropriate for the school (Okely et al 2007). Implementing school-based interventions that are multi-component in nature addressing the individual needs of the school, simultaneously targeting curricular, school environment and policy, and community links constitutes a promising approach for promoting physical activity (Okely et al 2007).

The notion of gender-specific and gender-separate PE classes was explored in an intervention program LEAP whereby a girl-friendly, choice-based instructional program was designed to build activity skills and reinforce participation in physical activity (Pate et al, 2005). Activities that girls typically enjoy (aerobics, dance, martial arts, walking) were offered in addition to competitive sports and other traditional PE activities; increasing motivation for physical activity participation in creating a school environment that supported the needs of these girls (Pate et al, 2005). At the follow up stage, the prevalence of regular vigorous physical activity was greater in the LEAP intervention schools than in the control schools, showing that an intervention focused on the needs of the students in making the PE curricula gender-specific to promote a supportive, activity friendly environment, influenced the prevalence of regular participation in vigorous physical activity among high school girls (Pate et al, 2005). The success of the intervention reinforces that interventions specific to a target group increases physical activity levels among adolescent girls, with the girls themselves indicating that the heightened safety and supportive nature of the gender-separate PE classes as well as the change in curriculum itself was the primary reason behind their increased enjoyment and motivation to participate in regular physical activity (Pate et al, 2005).

**Cultural and social analysis**

** “Female strength has been redefined as male pleasure” – APA Taskforce on the Sexualisation of Girls ** As evident within the literature, gender roles and constructs have a direct relationship with the increasing decline of adolescent girls’ participation in physical activity. Culture and society play a significant role in the construction of gender and the expectations placed on both males and females alike in the sporting domain.

Although efforts are being made to improve the perception of gender equality in a number of domains, conversations with children, who are supposedly innocent to gender inequality, show they are aware and conscious of social restrictions in sport and physical activities based on gender, but have difficulty expressing why or how (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). Adolescent girls who identified most strongly with the feminine discourse have lower levels of perceived athletic competence which has been considered to be a major influence on the declining rates of adolescent females in sports and physical activity (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006).

According to Sabo & Messner (1990), girls have difficulty reconciling the competitive nature of sports with their emerging femininity. Adolescent girls, who are more likely to hold a feminine gender role orientation, may not engage in sports activities because sports are considered to be masculine activity (Schmalz & Kerstetter, 2006). Researchers have contended that feminine sports and activities are assigned less value and lower social status in society than masculine sports and activities (Messner, 2002). A perceived higher social value and status assigned to masculine activities is inherently reflected in the media’s portrayal of female athletes. Media exposure has been found to constrain young women’s conceptions of femininity by putting appearance and physical attractiveness at the centre of women’s value (APA, 2010). This is reinforced by the sexualisation of female athletes across many media platforms whereby they are frequently pictured wearing minimal clothing with often very little, if any correlation to their sporting achievements.A central concern is that frequent exposure to media images that sexualize girls and women may affect how girls conceptualize femininity and sexuality, leading them to accept more constrained and stereotypical notions about gender roles and women as sexual objects (APA, 2010).

The relationship between gender and sexuality has received increasing attention within feminist theories; the attempt of sport to enforce gender difference through the hetero-sexualisation of female athletes is one aspect of this (Caudwell, 2011). Cole (1993), suggests that body and exercise have become commodified in that the feminine aesthetic is inscribed in heterosexual desire and compulsory heterosexuality (Schulze, 1990). This feminine aesthetic ties in with the body/sport relationship that is now part of a social formation dominated by perfect-bodies and the objectification of the sexual identity of female athletes (Cole, 1993). Although feminist critiques produced in the 1970s and 80s located the body as a site of power, many feminist theories align with the notion of a societal demand for control over women’s bodies (Cole, 1993). Stevenson (2002) supported this statement with his research having shown that some sociologists of sport had argued over the years that if by defining sport as a ‘social institution’ then refers this arena to be one of male dominance over females.

There are a multitude of messages to be derived from the Google search. Of the first page of results of my search for ‘female athletes’, three images depict these women playing the sport that they are renowned for. The remaining twenty four portray these sportswomen in tight, revealing clothing, many of which are completely unrelated to their sporting achievements.
 * Artefact Analysis and Learning Reflections **

It is concerning that when conducting a search for female athletes and expecting to see photos of an athletic and sports-oriented nature, the sexual identity of female athletes receives 88% of the search results whereby that of the athletes' sporting identity constitute only 12%. Should an adolescent girl - whom may already be susceptible to self-esteem issues and declines in rates of physical activity - sear ch Google for female athletes as I have done, the messages these images project reinforces existing negative connotations towards the conceptualization of sexuality and female athleticism, negating the positive messages of strength, fortitude and self-confidence in young women for those of sexualisation and subservience.

This artefact incites my passion for redressing the gender imbalance of the media’s sexualized portrayal of current female role models. The projection of women in a position influence - existing as role models for many girls and young women - as sex objects is only reinforcing the notion that women’s’ sport is inferior to that of men and is not to be taken seriously, possibly contributing to the decrease in self-worth and body-satisfaction among this population grouping.

As a pre-service high school teacher, I believe that the encouragement of self efficacy and confidence for girls and young women is integral and necessary and this objectification of women needs to change in order to attempt to reverse the trends we see occurring in our young population, especially our girls. A focus on female empowerment and self confidence can be achieved through the encouragement and promotion of social norms whereby girls remain active and receive respect and recognition solely for their sporting achievements rather than for their appearance.

American Psychological Association, Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. (2010). Report of the APA Task Force on the Sexualization of Girls. Retrieved from []
 * References **

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Caudwell, J. (2011). Sport Feminism(s): Narratives of Linearity? //Journal of Sport and Social Issues// //35,// 111. doi: 10.1177/0193723511406132

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Cole, C. (1993). Resisting the Canon: Feminist Cultural Studies, Sport, and Technologies of the Body. //Journal of Sport and Social Issues 17//, 77. doi: 10.1177/019372359301700202

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Constantinou, P., Manson, M., & Silverman, S. (2009). Female Students' Perceptions About Gender-Role Stereotypes and Their Influence on Attitude Toward Physical Education. Physical Educator, 66(2), 85-96.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Eime, R., Payne, W., Casey, M., & Harvey, J. (2010). Transition in participation in sport and unstructured physical activity for rural living adolescent girls. //Health Education Research, 25//(2), 282-293.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Kimm, S., Glynn, N., Kriska, A., Barton, B., Kromsberg, S., Daniels, S., Crawford, P., Sabry, Z., & Liu, K. (2002). Decline in physical activity in black girls and white girls during adolescence. //The New England Journal of Medicine. 347//, 709-715. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa003277.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Messner, A. (2002). //Taking the field: women, men, and sports.// [EBL version]. Retrieved from[]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Messner, M., & Sabo, D. (1990). //Sport, men, and the gender order:// //critical feminist perspectives//. Champaign, Ill: Human Kinetics Books

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Messner, M., Duncan, M., & Jensen, K. (1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sports. In D. S. Eitzen (Ed.), Sport in contemporary society: An anthology (pp. 219-233). New York: St. Martin’s Press

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Okely, A., Cotton, W., Lubans, D., Morgan, P., Puglisi, L., Miller, J., & ... Perry, J. (2011). A school-based intervention to promote physical activity among adolescent girls: rationale, design, and baseline data from the Girls in Sport group randomised controlled trial. BMC Public Health, 11658.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Pate, R., Ward, D., Saunders, R., Felton, G., Dishman, R., & Dowda, M. (2005). Promotion of Physical Activity Among High-School Girls: A Randomized Controlled Trial. //American Journal of Public Health// //95//**,** 1582-1587. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2004.045807

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Schmalz, D. L., & Kerstetter, D. L. (2006). Girlie Girls and Manly Men: Children's Stigma Consciousness of Gender in Sports and Physical Activities. //Journal Of Leisure Research//, //38//(4), 536-557.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Spinks, A., Macpherson, A., Bain, C., & McClure, R. (2006). Determinants of sufficient daily activity in Australian primary school children. //Journal of Paediatrics And Child Health, 42//(11), 674-679. Retrieved from EBSCO//host//.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Telama R, Yang X, Viikari J, Välimäki I, Wanne O, Raitakari O. Physical activity from childhood to adulthood: a 21-year tracking study. American journal of preventive medicine.2005;28:267–273. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2004.12.003.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Ward, L. M. (2002). Does television exposure affect emerging adults’ attitudes and assumptions about sexual relationships? Correlational and experimental confirmation. Journal of Youth & Adolescence, 31, 1–15.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Webber L, Catellier D, Lytle L, Murray D, Pratt C, Young D, Elder J, Lohman T, Stevens J, Jobe J, Pate R. Promoting Physical Activity in Middle School Girls: Trial of Activity for Adolescent Girls. American Journal of Preventive Medicine. 2008;34:173–184. doi: 10.1016/j.amepre.2007.11.018.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">World Health Organisation (2011). Childhood overweight and obesity. Retrieved October 31 from []


 * <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 90%;">Comments and Reflection **

Name: Sam Turner Student Number: n8280045 Tutor: Katie Page

Thanks for the enlightening read. I agree with what you said about gender constructions having a significant impact on the attitudes we naturally assume and associate with female athletes and women's sport as a whole. It was interesting to read that these gender expectations are prevalent in young children and further heightens the need for increased respect and recognition for women's sporting achievements rather than their physical attributes.

I think you related Marx's theory of dominant ideology brilliantly with the unfortunate reality of female athletes having to prove themselves in what is essentially still considered to be a male domain. Well done.

**Name:** Madeleine Purdon **Student Number:** n6256058 **Tutor:** Judith Meiklejohn

Brilliant choice of artefact. I can't count the number of times I've hear this song but your analysis of the messages within it really made me examine it in a different way.

You've presented a really comprehensive insight into mental health and its prevalence within society; it's unfortunate that there is still such a stigma associated with mental illness when we consider just how many people are affected by it.

I found it interesting that you refer to the internet as the promoter of anonymity and self-sufficiency. I do agree with you, but it caused me to consider our tendency to refer to internet forums of all kinds as 'online communities', however it seems in this case that there is certainly a sense of connectedness lacking in many people's internet interactions.

Thanks for the enlightening read.