You've+got+to+work+hard+to+succeed+-+but+make+sure+you+look+good+doing+it!!


 * 6332293**
 * Tutor: Colleen Niland**
 * Wednesday 3-4**

Running like a Girl: How Equitable is the Playing Field when it comes to Women in Sport?

You only have permission to be this strong if you can also look this beautiful. //Judith Butler (quoted in Washington & Karen, 2001) //

The media have transformed the meanings of women's physicality- women becoming active agents with and of their own bodies and women using their bodies in skilled, physical activity - to commodification, sexuality and feminity. //Kane & Greendorfer, 1994 //

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There is no argument that the majority of media coverage afforded to female sport and athletes is that which highlights aspects that maintain the women's femininity. With bikini babes gracing the pages of our 'sporting' magazines and even the sports fields themselves (think beach volleyball and track athletes), it is hard to imagine female athletes, and women in general, sweating it out in hard training sessions to give it their all come competition day. However, some major sporting brands, as Under Armour has done in the above advertisement, are displaying women as just that - hard-working individual's striving for greatness in their chosen sports without the faintest hint of make-up. All of the women in this advertisement are real athletes performing their 'real' training. So how far are we from having these images as our reality in Australia?


 * PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUE **

The World Health Organisation (2010) has identified lack of physical activity as the 4th leading risk factor for global mortality, behind high blood pressure, tobacco use and high glucose (diabetes). With exercise having beneficial effects on blood pressure and diabetes, it would appear that increasing population participation in physical activity is just what the doctor ordered! In 2009-2010 Australia saw a population participation rate of 64% for persons aged 15yrs and over, with males and females recording 65% and 63% respectively (ABS, 2011a). 2009 data of children's participation in organised sport sees female rates at 12-14yrs at 54.9% (ABS, 2011b) which increases to 71.1% for 15-17yr olds (ABS, 2011a). These figures seem to contradict a majority of research centred on adolescent physical activity participation (see Casey, Eime, Payne & Harvey, 2009; Olds, Dollman & Maher, 2009). It must be noted however, that the rates for children are those indicative of participation in organised sports only. Perhaps the overall participation in physical activity is higher when this is taken into account. So what part does sexualisation or 'emphasised femininity' (Connell, 1990, in Washington & Karen, 2001) of sporting women in the media play in public health? Research has shown that children and adolescents can experience increased self-esteem from participating in sports, however, if they have negative self-esteem, sports participation can increase these negative associations, especially if it makes them feel bad about their body image (Bowker, 2006). Positive relationships between mass media portrayals of women, body dissatisfaction and increased risk of eating disorders (Lennon, 2007) means that the current overtly sexualised images of female athletes within our media can have a major impact on the health of females in our society.


 * LITERATURE REVIEW **

As evidenced above, participation levels of both sexes in physical are virtually equal. However, within sport in general, this is where the equality ends. Across the media and the various professional positions associated with sport such as coaching and administration, women are still underrepresented, despite their half market share (Australian Sports Commission, 2003). Perhaps most overwhelming lopsided is media coverage of women’s sport. In 2008-09, women’s sports coverage made up just 9% of entire sports news compared to the staggering 81% attributed to men’s sport; and not only is there more men’s coverage, but it lasts longer too, with approximately 30 seconds more budgeted (Australian Sports Commission, 2010). Of interest is also the content and style of the news that is delivered concerning female athletes and their sporting conquests, especially when it comes to print media.

Portrayal of women in the media is vastly different to the way men’s sports are reported. Opening an article on a male athlete will most likely see the accompanying picture with the athlete in action in their sport. This is in stark contrast to those pictures of female athletes that often depict the female in either a highly sexualised manner (e.g. provocative clothing or suggestive positioning) or a general picture irrelevant to their sport (e.g. at home with the children or seated smiling). Interestingly, in a small study conducted by Knight and Giuliano (2002), participants reported having neither favourable impressions of or liking articles on athletes when attractiveness was emphasised instead of achievement. While this is an encouraging finding, the fact that the 92 responders were university undergraduates means the data is unlikely to represent any significant proportion of the population.

As girls reach adolescence, femininity becomes an increasingly important social ideal (Slater & Tiggeman, 2011). Slater and Tiggeman found in their research that adolescent girls often reporting that it wasn’t ‘cool’ or feminine to participate in sports. Their results also found that girls were likely to have increased self-objectification with regards to how they look doing sport. These findings indicate that negative effects on self-image and perception can be increased by participation in sport, especially those sports that emphasise body image and femininity. Disturbingly, low self-esteem and body image perception is positively related to increased risk and occurrence of disordered eating (Slater & Tiggeman, 2011). Even athletes themselves, with increased pressure to attain body ideals, are at higher risk for developing disordered eating patterns (Bucholz et al, 2008). This has important implications for the way the media portrays our female athletes and potential role models.

There appears to be a contradiction within the research, with authors reporting increased self-esteem from participation in sports, and others finding increases in body image concerns, particularly when it comes to female athletes (Swami, Steadman & Tovee, 2009). The role that the media plays in which of these two extremes adolescent females identify with must be considered. In their research, Swami et al (2009) found that it was those athletes with increased pressure to be lean (in this study, female track athletes) who internalised media messages and the body ideals associated with these messages more so than those athletes with less pressure to conform. While these findings are associated with the negative effects of sexualised images of females in sport, other research on positive female sporting images has produced results indicating a decrease in self-objectification in women (Daniels, 2009). In terms of a public health issue, it would seem that in order to maximise the health benefits, especially in terms of psychological health and females, changing the ways that women are currently represented in the media would be a start. Through positive performance based depictions of female athletes, and less trivialisation of their sporting achievements, we may see a concomitant decrease in negative body image issues and an increase in participation in physical activity.


 * CULTURAL AND SOCIAL ANALYSIS **

‘The social reproduction of gender in individuals reproduces the gendered social structures; as individuals act out gender norms and expectations in face-to-face interaction, they are constructing gendered systems of dominance and power’ (Lorber, 1994 as cited in Pfister & Hartmann-Tews, 2003)

A large part of the inequality in men’s and women’s sport comes down to the long held beliefs surrounding gender norms and what activities are appropriate for women. Most early sports were developed by men to encompass those skills that were important to men and generally identified as male with the simple result being exclusion of females (Burke, 2001). While these norms have become more liberal within the last few decades, construction of soft, gentle femininity begins almost at birth for girls. With pink and dolls thrust upon them near instantaneously, girls get a fast education in the activities that are associated with their gender, just as boys are thrown in the sandpit with their Tonka trucks and shushed with a ‘you’ll be right’ if tears threaten to thwart any bastion of masculinity. With sport and gender ideologies closely linked (Pfister & Hartmann-Tews, 2003), it’s no wonder that we see the vast differences in representations of the sexes in the sporting realm.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">The underrepresentation in the media has been suggested to be a way of excluding women from what has typically and historically been a male domain (Messner, Duncan & Jensen, 1993). Harris and Clayton (2002), present their idea of hegemonic femininity in terms of gender in sports, and how the feminine ideals establish even further the masculine hegemony. In their analyses of British tabloids, they uncovered several subtle ways in which the media gently pushes hegemonic masculinity as the norm. These include emphasising male traits, word choices devoid of the emotionality associated with women and the irrelevant banter often entered into by commentators commentating gender appropriate women’s sport. They use Anna Kournikova as a case-in-point, who in 2000, despite not achieving much success on the tennis court, was subject to an overwhelming amount of media coverage not afforded to those beating her. It has been suggested that the media maintains this image of women so as to target the interest of sports news consumers (Fink & Kensicki, 2002), inferring that women’s sport is simply more interesting with less clothes and more traditional representations of gender responsibilities.

<span style="display: block; font-family: 'times new roman','serif'; font-size: 16px; text-align: justify;">It is these representations of the beautiful, unsuccessful female athletes that have the potential to cause public health issues when it comes to positive role models and body image. With commentary on Anna Kournikova’s tennis matches more likely to surround her physical beauty, the re comes the suggestion that the goal of sexualisation is to simply trivialise and devalue women in sport (Messner, Duncan & Cooky, 2003), in turn further entrenching hegemonic masculinity (Connell, 1990; 1995, in Washington & Karen, 2001). When it comes to role modelling for adolescent girls, a strong, healthy female may be beneficial; however, tipping the scale towards a sexualised image may have a negative effect with girls feeling pressure to be feminine. With participation in sports still holding masculine ideologies, females may turn away so as not to be associated with those ideals (Slater & Tiggemann, 2011).


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 24px;">ANALYSIS OF ARTEFACT - WHAT HAVE I LEARNT? **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">The Under Armour advertisement is a sign of the times and moving forwards in regards to what society deems as normal for females when it comes to sports participation. The women within the advertisement are strong and healthy, and could well be thought of as role models for adolescents and sports participation. While it may be important to break down some gender stereotypes when it comes to how women are portrayed in the media and especially sporting magazines, women must collectively decide if they want to shun their feminist qualities altogether. Is it so narrow minded to consider that perhaps the differences that exist between men and women aren’t simply socially constructed but that at some level, our traits are innate? As an elite female athlete who has not suffered any discrimination or had to consider selling out to sexualisation, I enjoy being recognised as a woman despite the muscles and the chosen sporting activity. While I would certainly support increased media coverage of my sport, I would not like to be compared with the men outside of the dedication and hard work that both genders dedicate to performance.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Through this analysis it has become apparent that within the last decade we have taken steps toward greater equality for women in sport. With the 2008-09 findings by the Australian Sports Commission (2010) indicating a decrease in the stereotyping applied in the media to women’s sporting endeavours and the data from the ABS (2011a & b) revealing improvements in participation numbers of females in physical activity, one can only be hopeful that the same trends will continue. Perhaps one day sport we be viewed for sport itself and the thrill of competition will be lure enough – without the need for lingerie.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011a). //Sports and physical recreation: A statistical overview, Australia, 2011: Adults Participation//. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011b). //Sports and physical recreation: A statistical overview, Australia, 2011: Childrens Participation.// Retrieved from [|http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/4156.0~2011~Chapter~Children's+participation?OpenDocument#201021241914994951992010212419149950] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Australian Sports Commission. (2003). //Towards better sport: Good practices for women and girls in sport//. [Brochure]. Belconnen, ACT.: Author <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Australian Sports Commission. (2010). //Towards a level playing field: Sport and gender in Australian media//. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Bucholz, A., Mack, H., McVey, G., Feder, S. & Barrowman, N. (2008). BodySense: An evaluation of a positive body image intervention on sport climate for female athletes. //Eating Disorders, 16//, 308-321. doi: 10.1080/10640260802115910 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Burke, M. (2001). //Sport and traditions of feminist theory// (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://wallaby.vu.edu.au/adt-VVUT/uploads/approved/adt-VVUT20040212.121335/public/02whole.pdf <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Bowker, A. (2006). The relationship between sports participation and self-esteem during early adolescence. //Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science, 38//, 3, 214-229. doi: 10.1037/cjbs2006009 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Casey, M. M., Eime, R. M., Payne, W. R. & Harvey, J. T. (2009). Using socioecological approach to examine participation in sport and physical activity among rural adolescent girls. //Qualitative Health Research, 19//, 7, 881-893. doi:10.1177/1049732309338198 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Daniels, E. A. (2009). Sex objects, athletes, and sexy athletes: How media representations of women athletes can impact adolescent girls and college women. //Journal of Adolescent Research, 24//, 4, 399-422. doi: 10.1177/0743558409336748
 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 24px;">REFERENCES **

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Fink, J. S. & Kensicki, L. J. (2002). An imperceptible difference: Visual and textual constructions of femininity in Sports Illustrated and Sports Illustrated for Women. Mass Communication and Society, 5, 3, 317-339. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Fox, K. R. (2000). //The effects of exercise on self-perceptions and self-esteem.// In S. J. H. Biddle, K. R. Fox, & S. H. Boutcher (Eds.), Physical activity and <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">psychological well-being (pp. 88–117). London: Routledge.

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Harris, J. & Clayton, B. (2002). Femininity, masculinity, physicality and the English tabloid press: The case of Anna Kournikova. //International Review for the Sociology of Sport, 37//, 397-413. doi: 10.1177/1012690202037004024 <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Knight, J. L., & Giuliano, T., A. (2002). He’s a Laker; she’s a “looker”: the consequences of gender-stereotypical portrayals of male and female athletes by the print media. //<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Sex Roles, 45 //, 217-229. doi: 10.1023/A:1013553811620 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Lennon, S. J. (2007). Mass media, self-esteem, body image, and eating disorder tendencies. //Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 25//, 1, 3-23. doi: 10.1177/0887302X06296873 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Kane, M. J. & Greendorfer, S. L. (1994). //The media’s role in accommodating and resisting stereotyped images of women in sport.// In P.J. Creedon (Ed.) Women, media and Sport: Challenging gender values, (28-44). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Messner, M., Duncan, M. and Jensen, K. (1993). Separating the men from the girls: The gendered language of televised sport. //Gender and Society// //7//, 121–37. <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Messner, M. A., Duncan, M. C., & Cooky, C. (2003). Silence, sports bras, and wrestling porn: Women in televised sports news and highlights shows. //Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 27//, 38-51. doi: 10.1177/0193732502239583 <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Olds, T., Dollman, J. & maher, C. (2009). Australian adolescents in sport: Who, when, where and what? //ACHPER Healthy Lifestyles Journal//, //56//, 1, 11-16. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Slater, A., & Tiggeman, M. (2011). Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self-objectification and body image concerns. //Journal of Adolescence, 34//, 455-463. <span style="color: #000000; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">doi: <span style="color: #000066; font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.06.007

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Swami, V., Steadman, L., & Tovee, M. J. (2009). A comparison of body size ideals, body dissatisfaction, and media influence between female track athletes, martial artists, and non-athletes. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 10, 609-614. doi:10.1016/j.psychsport.2009.03.003

<span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">underarmour. (2010). Under Armour Women. Protect This House. I WILL [Video file]. Retrieved from [] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">Washington, R. E. & Karen, D. (2001). Sport and society. Annual Review of Sociology, 27, 187-212. Retrieved from [|www.annualreviews.org] <span style="font-family: 'Arial','sans-serif';">World Health Organisation. (2010). //Global Recommendations on Physical Activity for Health//. Retrieved from []

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