Girls+and+Women+in+Sport

Student number: n8309175 Name: Alice Blakely Tutor: Katie Page

Running Like a Girl: How Equitable is the Playing Field when it comes to Women in Sport?

**Present Artefact** Like mother, like daughter. The mother is doing yoga, captured in the downward dog pose. Her daughter is attempting to copy exactly what her mother is doing. The copying of a mother’s action is commonly performed by daughters, which may be a positive or negative detail, depending on the example set by the parent. This illustrates how parents have such an influential role in their children’s physical activity levels and therefore the importance of establishing positive role model behaviours.

**Public Health Issue** Physical inactivity is one of the leading modifiable risk factors for morbidity and mortality, causing around 3.2 million deaths worldwide in 2004 (WHO, 2009). Adolescence is often the time when physical activity patterns are established for adulthood, making it an especially crucial time for promoting physical activity (Peralta, 2011).

Early intervention is the key to increasing women’s participation in sport and will ease the public health burden for older women who have not maintained physical activity from their childhood. Almost a quarter of children and adolescents in Australia are overweight. Of these, about one in four are obese—a proportion that is increasing each year (AIHW, 2004). If the trend of overweight and obese children continues, it will place enormous pressure on services for the care of people with obesity-related diseases when these children become adults. Devising a strategy to counteract rising obesity is a complex challenge that needs to be addressed at both a societal and individual level (Dixon, Eckersley & Banwell, 2003).

**Literary Review** Women have been making the most inspiring achievements in sport despite the gender biased barriers that they have faced. In 1896, the founder of the modern Olympics, Baron Pierre de Coubertin, stated that “No matter how toughened a sportswoman may be, her organism is not cut out to sustain certain shocks.” Such stereotypes have stimulated discrimination on gender in relation to physical education, recreational sports, competitive sports, sporting organisations and the media (UN Women 2000 and Beyond, 2007).

The most recent data collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that 1.7 million Australian children took part in at least one organised sport outside of school (ABS, 2009). The 9 to 11 year old group had the highest participation rates while the biggest gender difference was in the 12 to 14 year olds where boys had 74% participation rate compared to girls with only 55%. This graph below shows the significant gap between girls’ and boys’ participation in sport and how both genders show a decrease as they reach adolescence.

Girls and boys start primary school with fairly equal participation rates because physically their bodies are fairly similar. There has been found that there is no gender gap for competitiveness at this age (Dreber, 2011).

Adults possessing low physical activity levels are associated with an increased risk of obesity, cardiovascular disease, type 2 diabetes and premature death (Davison, 2006). Among children and adolescents, low levels of physical activity has been linked with an elevated risk of obesity (Trost, Kerr, Ward & Pate, 2001), low bone density (Rowlands, 2004) and poor physical fitness. Additionally, children are denied the positive social and emotional benefits of physical activity if they have low levels of participation. Some of the emotional benefits of higher physical activity are higher self esteem, reduced anxiety and lower stress. Adolescent girls in particular are at risk to anxiety and depressive disorders, hence the power of physical activity can help overcome these unhealthy mental states (UN Women 2000 and beyond, 2007). Davison reports that it is important to identify strategies for encouraging and promoting physical activity prior to this risk period (adolescence).

So we have to then ask ourselves, why are girls dropping out of sport as they reach adolescence? Tiggemann (2001) studied the gender difference in adolescent sport participation. She concluded that teasing and body image concerns may contribute to the reduced physical activity rates of older girls. In addition the types of sports offered gives less opportunity for girls. The absence of role models may also influence participation rates. However there are limitations to this research because it is impossible to see the difference that women sport stars have as role models until there are plenty of them. It has been seen that girls rarely have a sports role model, they may think well of a sports star but role models are typically family, peers or someone famous from the entertainment industry (Vescio, 2005). In fact parents usually determine how active their child is.

The Australian Government has recently been injecting funds into female sports and research. In a Commonwealth of Australia publication (Women in sport and Recreation Australia, 2006) a number of barriers to girls participating in sport were noted including that physical education was not geared for girls, a stronger focus on competition was apparent rather than fun, girls lacked confidence and the classes constructed the opinions that girls are weaker and less skilled than boys. This research however needs to be more in depth and ongoing in order to find some more possible reasons to girls limited participation in sport as they reach adolescence. The Australian Government needs to keep this a high priority until the participation rates increase dramatically and the health of our young Australian females can be assured.

A survey by Cockburn in 2001 revealed that about one third of 9th grade girls who participated in physical education in coeducational classes felt discouraged by boys. It was found that girls in single-sex PE classes had significantly higher engaged skill learning time and were given more opportunities to participate than in mixed gender classes (Hannon, 2008). Therefore in order to allow girls to participate in physical education classes without feeling inadequate or less skilled, single gender classes should be offered in all schools for at least each grade in high school where the gap between girls and boys becomes more apparent. Once more of these classes are available, extensive research can be performed to establish that they are worthy of inclusion in our high schools.

A study by the Women’s Sports Foundation on sport and teen pregnancy in the United States found that the sense of ownership and respect for their bodies developed by adolescent girls who take part in sport encourages them to delay sexual activity, thereby reducing the occurrence of teen pregnancy (Sabo, Miller, Farrell, Barnes & Melnick, 1998). This is a postive outcome that can be achieved for the public health or our society by encouraging more girls to participate in physical activity. Women and girls not only gain improvements to health, but stand to achieve specific social benefits from participation in sport and physical activity. Sport presents women and girls with an alternative avenue for participation in the social and cultural life of their communities and promotes enjoyment of freedom of expression, interpersonal networks, new opportunities and increased self-esteem (UN Women 2000 and beyond, 2007). These are invaluable tools to gain young in life to prepare girls for their futures. It also expands opportunities for education and for the development of a range of essential life skills, including communication, leadership, teamwork and negotiation (UN Women 2000 and beyond, 2007).

**Cultural and Social Analysis** Australia has a rich sporting history, and a significant contribution to that history is from women despite sometimes difficult circumstances (Aussport, 2011). Over many years women have faced restrictions in participating in physical activity primarily placed on them by men. In the early nineteenth century ‘modern sports’ emerged from England, spreading to many other Western countries. Alongside the modern sports came the expansion of medical and scientific professions, which were largely occupied by men. In the 1870’s a theory from the medical and science experts that humans were provided with limited amounts of bodily fluids which should only be used in the service of God, family or country (Collings, 2007). Initially this focused on men’s seminal fluid, however it was soon applied to women arguing that they should not engage in physical activity outside the home’s domestic labour (Collings, 2007).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Female sport was largely discouraged because doctors said that severe physiological effects to the female body would result from excessive physical activity, especially sporting activity (Aussport, 2011). Despite the male influence, women in the 1880’s began to organise sports in the new girl’s public schools in England. For Australia, schoolgirl sports followed in the 1880s and 1890s, mostly playing tennis, cricket and hockey. Just as women’s participation in sport was greatly increasing, fears of women becoming too ‘mannish’ arose in the 1890s and attacks on women’s sport increased (Nauright, 1995). Many sports were therefore pronounced unsuitable for women and harsh restrictions on women playing football and cricket were established.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Organised sport in Australia was somewhat revolutionary, however organised participation by women was slow to take off. For example in golf, it was not until the 1920s that a controlling body was formed for women’s amateur golf and yet women could only become ‘associate members’, having access to the course merely on special days, generally during the week (Aussport, 2011). Commonwealth and State laws on equal opportunity and discrimination were established in the 1970s which forced clubs to abandon these practices altered in their rules (Aussport, 2011).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">In the 1980s Government initiatives made women’s participation more accessible. In 1984 the Commonwealth Sex Discrimination Act was passed followed by several state equal opportunity acts (Aussport, 2011). This act made it unlawful to discriminate against a person on the grounds of sex, marital status or pregnancy. In addition sporting clubs were obligated to open an opportunity of full membership to women (Nauright, 1995).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Throughout the mid-1980s a series of surveys exposed that having only a small number of role models in sport disadvantaged schoolgirls (Collings, 2007). It was also found that schoolgirls who did not play sport were commonly low achievers. In 1984 the Australian Government launched a program to increase girls’ self-esteem through physical education, the //Girls in Physical Education Project//. A chief initiative came the following year with the founding of the Federal Government working group on women in sport whose report in 1985 titled //Women, Sport and the Media//, proposed the establishment of the Women’s Sport unit attached to the Australian Sports Commission. The unit, which was established in 1988, developed the national Active Girls campaign which endorsed sport to girls with the aim of breaking down barriers to their participation (Nauright, 1995). At present, the unit works with national non-government groups to attend to a diverse range of issues including harassment in sport, sports groups’ amalgamations, mentoring, poor media coverage, low numbers of women in leadership positions and improving access to facilities and resources (Aussport, 2011).

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Cultural traditions are difficult to resist, especially as they are reinforced by media representations of an epitome of beauty, as well as being reflected in our everyday relationships (Aussport, 2011). Gender inequality is apparent in many cultures to this day including Australia, not only in the sporting realm but the high profile jobs and politics to name a few. Women have to take matters into their own hands by for example forming groups to combat gender inequality. The participation of women and girls in sport confronts gender stereotypes and discrimination, and can therefore be a medium to promote gender equality and the empowerment of women and girls (Nauright, 1995). Specifically, attitudes towards women’s capabilities can be shaped by women in sport leadership. They can transform women to be perceived leaders and decision-makers, especially in traditional male domains. Women’s contribution in sport can make a considerable contribution to public life and community growth.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">**Analysis of Artefact & own Learning Reflections** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">The artefact represents the close bond between mothers and daughters. All children look up to someone to follow and admire and for young girls their mother is usually their first choice. The picture represents just how much influence parents have over their children and, as discussed previously, a girl’s parents are often role models. At a young age, like the daughter in the picture, good habits need to be instilled, particularly eating well and plenty of physical activity which are the two key factors in a healthy life. I myself was raised solely by my mother and at the age of 18 now I have turned out very similar to her. I have just been lucky enough to have a great role model who has set me an excellent foundation to what will be a healthy and happy life.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">By critically analysing the research from the topic of women in sport it has made me more aware of the Australian Government’s efforts to increase women’s participation in sport and the passionate organisations with the same aim. As a result, I am now more passionate to increase participation of girls in sport. It is such a key factor in public health ensuring that the females in the population are healthy and physically active and deserves continuing funds and research to hopefully one day accomplish gender equality.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">**<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Reflection **

Page: Give Girls a Go! Exellent research: The evidence that you found about males receiving priority for resources, like playing fields, is an excellent example. This is undeniably correct and it was apparent in my high school when the boy’s sports would be given priority of training times and locations on our school oval. It is definitely a case of gender inequality. Congratulations on a high-quality assignment.

Page: Running Like a Girl Good Point: I really agree with the point that you made about women not having enough time for sporting activities. It is very true in our modern society for work and family to be taking up too much time. I hadn't thought about the inconvenient times which sporting organisations offer but it is such a valid and realistic argument. Well done!

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">**Reference List** <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Australian Institute of Health and Welfare: Risk Factor Monitoring. (2011). Retrieved October 21, 2001, from [|www.aihw.gov.au/WorkArea/DownloadAsset.aspx?id=6442471181]

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<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Bailey, R. (2006). "Physical Education and Sport in Schools: A Review of Benefits and Outcomes". //The Journal of School Health//, 76 (8) , p. 397. 10.1111/j.1746-1561.2006.00132.x <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Boulder Active: Youth. (2011). Retrieved October 12, 2011, from []

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Cockburn, C. (2001). Year 9 girls and physical education: A survey of pupil perceptions. //The Bulletin of Physical Education, 37(1), 5-24// <span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Collins, T. (2007). "Review Article: Work, Rest and Play: Recent Trends in the History of Sport and Leisure". //Journal of contemporary history//. 42 (2), p. 397 .doi: 10.1177/0022009407075770

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Davison, K. (2006). "Pathways Linking Perceived Athletic Competence and Parental Support at Age 9 Years to Girls' Physical Activity at Age 11 Years". //Research quarterly for exercise and sport//, 77 (1) , p. 23.

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<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Hannon, James C (2008). "Should Secondary Physical Education Be Coeducational or Single-Sex?". //Journal of physical education, recreation & dance//, 79 (2), p. 6.

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Nauright, J. (1995). "From Private to Public: Historical and Social Factors in the Development of Women's Sport in Australia and New Zealand". //European physical education review//, 1 (2) , p. 137. doi: 10.1177/1356336X9500100205

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;"> Rowlands, A. (2004). "Interactive effects of habitual physical activity and calcium intake on bone density in boys and girls". //Journal of applied physiology// (1985), 97 (4) , p. 1203.

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<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Tiggemann, M. (2011). "Gender differences in adolescent sport participation, teasing, self objectification and body image concerns". //Journal of adolescence (London, England.)// //(0140-1971)//, 34 (3), p. 455. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2010.06.007

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Vescio, J. (2005). "Profiling Sport Role Models to Enhance Initiatives for Adolescent Girls in Physical Education and Sport//". European physical education review//, 11 (2), p. 153. doi: 10.1177/1356336X05052894

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">Women 2000 and Beyond. (2007). United Nations Publication. Retrieved November 1, 2011, from []

<span style="display: block; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%; text-align: left;">World Health Organisation: Global health risks: Mortality and burden of disease attributable to selected major risks Geneva, Switzerland: //World Health Organisation//; 2009.