Masculinity+vs.+Femininity+-+Socialisation+and+Stereotypes

Name: Sarah Farrington Student Number: n8314853 Tutor: Katie Page

//"The real reason we want equal opportunity for our daughters to play sports is so they too can derive the psychological, physiological, and sociological benefits of sports participation. Sport has been one of the most important socio-cultural learning experiences for boys and men for many years. Those same benefits should be afforded to our daughters." // **- Donna Lapiano, CEO Women's Sport Foundation 1992 - 2007**

**__Artefact:__**

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Iconic sporting company Nike released an ad in 2009 about the Men vs. Women virtual running campaign. The campaign went from March 14 to April 20 and adds the kilometres completed by women and men across the globe to determine who is superior, men or women. The ad features tennis player Rodger Federer, Swedish footballer Zlatan Ibrahimovic, Spanish footballer Fernando Torres, dancer Sofia Boutella, and Eva Longoria and NBA husband Tony Parker. The current campaign involves the most kilometres run by men vs. women over 365 days from January 1 2011 to January 1 2012 (Nike, Inc., 2011).

**__Public Health Issue:__**

Women in sport is a broad and leading public health issue. Traditional stereotypes represent male dominance and female oppression and this paradigm has been adopted by the sporting world. Societal expectations have arisen from these established gender stereotypes, which have developed from socialisation factors within today’s society (Amezdroz, Dickens, Hosford & Davis, 2004). This issue has lead to women being significantly disadvantaged, treated unequally and being unfairly represented in sports and physical recreation. This essay will investigate the gender stereotyping of sports and highlight the importance of a movement towards gender equality in sport through the elimination of socialisation and the increased social acceptance of women participating in masculine sports.

**__Literature Review:__**

The Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) (2009) defines a sports participant as “a player, competitor or person who physically undertakes the activity”. In today’s society sport participants are not all equal and the opportunity for them to equitably participate in a selected sport is being influenced by the stereotypes and social norms surrounding that sport.

Stereotypes are “schemas about characteristics ascribed to a group of people based on qualities such as race, ethnicity or gender rather than achievements or actions” (Burton, Westen, & Kowalski, 2009). Constructs of gender characteristics are developed by society from when a baby is born; an example is girls dressed in pink and boys in blue (Dorken, & Giles, 2011). In the past, feminine stereotypes were often defined by tasks that are portrayed as simpler than tasks defined as masculine (Csizma, Wittig & Schurr, 1988). Women were often described with terms such as ‘passive’ and ‘childlike’ while descriptions such as ‘aggressive’ and ‘competitive’ were used for men (Riemer, & Visio, 2003). In a later article, Alley and Hicks (2005) noted that there consistent and stable gender stereotypes persist within today’s society. Characteristics of being feminine included being “communal” or expressive, while being masculine included traits such as “agentic”, instrumental and competitive (Alley & Hicks, 2005).

Socialisation is “the process by which individuals learn to modify their behaviour to conform to what is considered ‘acceptable’ in their society and includes the cultural attitudes, values and roles of the society” (Amezdroz et al., 2004, p. 483). This process teaches individuals to learn to categorise sports into masculine, neutral or feminine with these gender stereotypes developed from a young age (Alley & Hicks, 2005). Recent research demonstrates that the concept of socialisation influences young students to identify activities involving power, speed and strength such as soccer and rugby to be a ‘male’ activity and unfeminine compared to tennis or volleyball (Alley & Hicks, 2005). This same research further suggests that adopted sex stereotypes for certain sports may impact who chooses to participate and how their participants are viewed by others (Alley & Hicks, 2005).

Gender stereotypes developed through socialisation lead to perceptions that an individual is less masculine or feminine depending on the sports they participate in through the categorising of sports into gender ‘appropriate’ or ‘inappropriate’ (Alley & Hicks, 2005). Research conducted by Csizma, Wittig and Schurr (1988) found that the concept of feminine tasks being simpler than masculine tasks is generally not valid for sports. Consistent with this, other supporting research indicated that appropriate sports for females emphasised lean bodies and were often individual rather than team sports (Alley & Hicks, 2005). These criteria defined by Alley and Hicks (2005) for sports participation has influenced athletes’ willingness to participate in certain sports leading to the constructed stereotypes filtering out potential participants in certain sports.

The Australian Bureau of Statistics conducted two survey’s Participation in Sports and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2005-06 and in 2009-10. In the 2005-06 survey participation rates of men and women in regular physical activity were 27% and 32%, respectively (ABS, 2009). In 2009-10 participation rates between males and females were similar with 65% for men and 63% for women (ABS, 2011). The 2005-06 survey found that of the top ten sports and physical recreation activities participated in by men, eight of them were in the top ten participated in by women (ABS, 2009). Results from the ABS survey (2009 & 2011) also showed almost identical participation rates between males and females when grouped by age in 2005-06 and 2009-10. This trend was also true when participants were grouped by index of relative social-economic disadvantage (ABS, 2009 & 2011).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">These statistics indicate that women and men are equally motivated to participate in sport and physical recreation activities. This links to the public health issue that women’s sport is lacking in opportunities and social support addressed in the United Nations Millennium Development Goal #3, which relates to girls’ and women’s participation in sport, focusing specifically on promotion of gender equality and empowerment of women (Lyras & Hums, 2009). The programs developed that targeted achieving the millennium goal demonstrated that an inclusive educational sport setting promoted acceptance, friendship and positive group interaction (Lyras & Hums, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">In 1965 a classification system that characterised sports as socially acceptable for females to perform and participate in based on the degree to which the sport conforms to traditional stereotypical views of appropriate female behaviour was proposed and named Metheny’s classification (Riemer & Visio, 2003). This classification system determined the gender appropriateness of a sport by assessing the physicality of the nature of the sport (Riemer & Visio, 2003). Riemer and Visio (2003, p.194) stated that Metheny’s classification emphasized that “the socially sanctioned images of femininity and masculinity are always relative. They differ from era to era, from culture to culture, and from group to group within a given social organization”.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Research results demonstrate that these ideas proposed by Metheny of sports being perceived as gender specific are still continuing to be adopted and endorsed. This supports other research that has proposed certain sports as being masculine domains and sports involving minimal contact were appropriate for females (Riemer & Visio, 2003). It is significant progress in equality in sport from when Metheny’s classification was first proposed to today shows that while the same classification structure is still valid, there have been some changes and developments. This demonstrates that sports appropriate for females are expanding to include traditionally masculine sports, although within these sports the female participants may not always be socially accepted (Riemer & Visio, 2003).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">A recent research report on sport stereotypes and gender supports these ideas that although there has been an increase in female sport participation, females are still not being socially accepted when participating in sports and recreational activities (Csizma, Wittig, & Schurr, 1988). Csizma, Wittig and Schurr (1988) stated that due to changes in sociocultural conditions since the early 1970’s there has been an increase in females’ participation in sport, particularly in vigorous activities. They also wrote despite these changes, “Sport remains highly associated with the so-called ‘masculine’ elements of our culture, and the female in sport is still considered a woman in man’s territory” (Csizma, Wittig, & Schurr, 1988, p.62). This research also challenged Metheny’s methodologies highlighting an inconsistency in the classification of sports depending on their acceptability for female participation. Csizma, Wittig and Schurr (1988) mention other literature from the time also identifying the inconsistency and locating considerable variance in the methodology applied.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 170%;">**__Cultural and Social Analysis:__**

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">The public health issue of male dominance and female oppression in sport has been analysed using the post-structural feminist theories, social psychology theories and contemporary perspectives by feminist sport theorists. Modern research states that theorists are being to view masculinity and femininity as separate but not opposing traits rather than them traditionally being viewed as bipolar opposites and different ends of a continuum (Alley & Hicks, 2005). This contemporary perspective opposes the traditionally endorsed ideas of society labelling sports and physical recreation activities as being appropriate for females to participate in (Alley & Hicks, 2005). These modern approaches believe femininity can be retained even if the female athletes’ are ‘masculinised’ by participation in competitive sports (Alley & Hicks, 2005).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Sociocultural change occurring from the early 1970’s to present has been a leading factor in the changing patterns of female participation in sport (Csizma, Wittig, & Schurr, 1988). Research demonstrates that following World War II social scientists showed increased interest and efforts to preventing racism, discrimination and cross-group intolerance (Lyras, & Hums, 2009). The scientists found that contact between diverse groups of people with different characteristics was the most effective way to reduced or eliminate racism, prejudice and discrimination (Lyras & Hums, 2009). This theory applied to gender discrimination and sex-stereotypes and shows links between these principles and sport equality.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Implementation of federal legislation in the early 1970’s also influenced the changing participation rates and continual movement towards equality for females in sport (Csizma, Wittig & Schurr, 1988). An example of this is Title IX of the Education Reformation Act passed in 1972 (Compton & Compton, 2010). Title IX was passed for the purpose of providing and promoting equality between males and females and requires equal opportunities for participation and equal treatment and benefits for athletes with intercollegiate programs (Compton & Compton, 2010). Recent research by Compton & Compton (2010) demonstrated that increase of participation from women and girls in sport today is due to an increased availability of opportunities. Title IX expressed “no person shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any educational program or activity receiving federal financial assistance” (Compton & Compton, 2010, p.4). Title IX has been a movement to gender equity in schools by requiring that if female students are underrepresented; their interests must be accommodated by creating more opportunities for females or reducing the opportunities for males to promote equality (Compton & Compton, 2010).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Australian sport policies have developed significantly to focus on social inclusion and diversity and dominate issues of participation, equity and access (Cortis, 2009). Cortis (2009) reports on the Australian Senate adding reviews of uniform policies and improved media coverage onto a list of strategies for promoting diversity and women’s participation within the sporting environment. In the 1980’s the Australian Sports Commission, the Australian Institute of Sport and a Federal sports portfolio were all established to support elite sport (Cortis, 2009). The public health agenda targeted community level participation through the ‘Active Australia’ initiative and the Active After-school Communities program, which promoted mass participation and physical activity (Cortis, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">Diversity and equality in sports has seen positive development through from the 1970’s to present. It is a leading public health concern in today’s society and should continue to be focused on. Current agencies working towards reaching equality should create a greater awareness of the issue and continue developing strategies working to eliminate issues surrounding participation, equity and access.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 170%;">__**Analysis and Learning Reflection:**__

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">My artefact is symbolic in terms of expressing the superiority battle that persists in the sporting environment. It illustrates the attitudes of men believing they are superior to women and women fighting to be equal competitors. The advertisement triggers competitiveness in the viewer creating awareness and promoting physical activity. It briefly represents masculinity and femininity allowing for detailed analysis and varied interpretations of the meaning surrounding it. The advertisement creates a positive grouping of females with similar desires and passions, which I relate to and identify with. It portrays a public health issue in a humorous way that appeals to the public.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">After critically analysing this research topic, I can conclude that although equality is still an issue in sport there has been significant progress with efforts continuously being made to advance this progress towards reaching equality. This public health issue has been identified by many government agencies who are promoting awareness amongst communities and organisations. An article from the //Australian Journal of Social Issues// states “initiates aimed at promoting diversity in sport have been largely aspirational and have taken a lower profile, lacking the legitimacy and co-ordination that a national social inclusion agenda, diversity compliance framework or sports equity agency would provide”. This demonstrates that there is still substantial progress to be made before eliminating issues of participation, equity and access from today’s society and sporting world (Cortis, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 170%;">__**Learning Engagement and Reflection Task**__

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">**Page:** Each time you sleep with someone, you're also sleeping with his past. <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">**Author:** n7647409 <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">**Comment:** You're Sleeping With His Past

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 130%;">I think you have picked a very interesting and relevant topic in today's society and particularly to today's youth. The accompanying artefact represents the issue outstandingly well and is very engaging to the reader, along with the title taken from the artefact. Your analysis of the social and cultural aspects of the issue demonstrates strong ideas and approaches I had not considered myself. You have identified and done an indepth analysis of a important and developing public health issue well and provided the reader with reputable information and opinion.

**Page:** Shots, shots, shots: Generation Y and Binge Drinking **Comment:** Fantastic Artefact! You have picked a clever title: Shots, shots, shots to represent your topic as this is immediately identified as the LMFAO song by those who are familiar with it. This is also true of your artefact as generation Y who are the subjects of the public health issue are the ones familiar with the song. As someone from generation Y and being 18 and exposed to alcohol the statistics are very eye-opening and will hopefully promote change within individuals. As there is a strong social aspect of the issue the analysis is very relevant. I found the part about the goals + success and the definitions of the five terms very interesting. You have well discussed and relevant public health issue in an engaging way.
 * Author: ** n8289867

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">Links: __ <span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Nike Running Challenge]

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;">[|Australian Government for Women]

[|Australian Sports Commission]

[|Australian Institute of Sport]

__<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 150%;">Reference List: __
 * Alley, T. R., & Hicks, C. M. (2005). Peer Attitudes towards Adolescent Participants in Male- and Female-Oriented Sports. //Adolescence, 40(//158), 273-280.
 * Amezdroz, G., Dickens, S., Hosford, G., & Davis, D. (2004). //Queensland Senior Physical Education// (2nd ed.). South Yarra: Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd.
 * Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). Feature Article 3: Women In Sport. Retrieved from []
 * Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Participation in Sport and Physical Recreation, Australia, 2009-10. Retrieved from []
 * Burton, L., Westen, D., & Kowalski, R. (2009). //Psychology// (2nd ed.). Queensland: John Wiley & Sons Australia, Ltd.
 * Compton, N. H., & Compton, J. D. (2010). How Title IX and Proportionality Population Concepts Have Equalized Collegiate Women’s Sports Programs with Men’s Sports and Allows Spillover Gains For Women in The Workplace. //Forum on Public Policy Online, 2010//(2), 1-11. Retrieved from []
 * Cortis, N. (2009). Social inclusion and sport: culturally diverse women’s perspectives. //Australian Journal of Social Issues.//
 * Csizma, K. A., Wittig, A. F., & Schurr, K. T. (1988). Sport Stereotypes and Gender. //Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10//, 62-74.
 * Dorken, S., & Giles, A. (2011). From Ribbon to Wrist Shot: An Autoenthnography of (A)typical Feminine Sport Development. //Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 20//(1), 13-21.
 * Lyras, A., & Hums, M. A. (2009). Sport and Social Change: The Case for Gender Equality. //Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 80//(1), 7-8.
 * Nike, Inc. (2011). Men vs. Women. Retrieved from [|http://nikerunning.nike.com/nikeos/p/nikeplus/en_AU/plus/#//challenges/detail/880696604]
 * NikePlusTV. (2009, March 27). Nike+ Men Vs. Women Original HD. Retrieved from []
 * Riemer, B. A., & Visio, M. E. (2003). Gender Typing of Sports: An investigation of Metheny’s Classification. //Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 74//(2), 193-204.