‘Raising+Boys+to+Kill+Themselves’+-+Socialisation+Contributes+to+Male+Suicide+Rates

 Raising Boys to Kill Themselves: Socialisation Contributes to Male Suicide Rates Name: Jenna Campton Student No.: N7122683 Tutor: Colleen Niland

**Topic ** Mental Health: The public health issue of suicide in Australian males

**Cultural Artefact **



This photograph is called ‘Worst enemy’ and it depicts an average Caucasian young man (Petrucci, 2009). His socioeconomic background is unidentifiable and he could live in any town or city in the Western world. The mood of the picture is sombre as he holds his hand to his head and pulls the trigger.

**Public Health Issue **

This cultural artefact is representative of suicide in males in Westernised societies. Suicide in Australian males is a prevalent public health issue as it remains the 10th leading cause of death in males (ABS, 2009). Furthermore, suicide accounts for approximately 25% of deaths for men between the ages of 20-44 and 22% in the age groups of 15-24 (ABS, 2009). This report will establish the social and cultural issues surrounding suicide that Australian males currently face. These issues will be analysed through social theory and as a result of this analysis solutions for this prevalent public health issue will be proposed.

**Literature Review **

Suicide is reported to be one of the most studied causes of death for people with a mental illness as rates are reported to be between ten to fourteen times more likely among patients with mood disorders, schizophrenia, or affective disorders (Lawrence, Kisely, & Pais, 2010). In 2010 a Senate inquiry investigated suicide in Australia and found that at least six Australian lives are taken by suicide every day (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). The government and other sectors face large economical consequences as suicide comprises 2.2% of the disease burden of Australia and the total cost of suicide is an estimated 12 billion per year for every 2000 deaths (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). More notably suicide is reported to cause 60% more deaths than car accidents (ABS, 2009).

There has been little change in suicide rates for Australian both males and females over the past 100 years (Ford, 2005). In 1897, the suicide rate for males was 20.6 per 100,000 population and 5.5 per 100,000 population for females (Ford, 2005). By 2009, the suicide rate for males was 14.9 per 100,000 and 4.4 per 100,000 for females (Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2009).The Australia Bureau of Statistics reported that in 2009 more than three times as many males than females died from suicide. Furthermore, research on depression and suicide has revealed that men are diagnosed with depression less frequently than women yet they complete suicides three times more often (Rochlen, Whilde, & Hoyer, 2005).

Some researcher’s argue that the modest overall reduction in suicide rates is due to changes in the availability of methods of suicide (Large & Nielssen, 2010; Tait & Carpenter, 2010). During the period 1988-2007 Australia introduced national suicide prevention strategies and measures to reduce the availability of some lethal methods of committing suicide (Large & Nielssen, 2010). This included the firearms “buy back” scheme, the introduction of catalytic converters in all new cars and new prescription drugs which reduced overdoses (Large & Nielssen, 2010; Tait & Carpenter, 2010). It has been stated that the increase in the suicide rates of males over the last thirty years is attributable to an increased use of lethal methods of suicide (Cantor & Baume, 1998). Several researchers’ report that males tend to used more immediate and violent methods of suicide compared to females and that this may account for the higher rates of suicide in males (Cantor & Baume, 1998; Large & Nielssen, 2010). Tait and Carpenter (2010) found that Queensland men were more likely to shoot or hang themselves than women. These results demonstrate that more violent deaths are a part of the cultural scripts associated with masculinity as women were found to choose more passive suicides which involved a higher chance of rescue or recovery (Tait & Carpenter, 2010).

Additionally, Hammer and Vogel (2010) have reported that men are less likely to seek professional help than women. Many researchers have suggested that this is due to the stigmatisation of mental health and suicide which is a major barrier to help seeking behaviour (Hammer & Vogel, 2010; O’Loughlin et al., 2011). Self-stigma is defined as the perception of oneself as being weak for seeking help and it has been identified as a major barrier to male help seeking behaviour (Hammer & Vogel, 2010). Furthermore, Smith, Tran and Thompson (2008) state that the male socialisation process can lead to a traditional masculine ideology which is developed in childhood through cultural messages about what is considered normal male behaviour. In Western cultures traditional masculine ideology results in the belief that males should be strong, tough, independent, and emotionless and any deviation from this is considered abnormal (Smith et al., 2008). This is especially the case for males who express emotion or who seek psychiatric help as they are stereotyped as being weak and/or crazy (Smith et al., 2008). Moreover, Pridmore and McArthur (2009) have suggested that western society has taught males maladaptive ways in which to deal with adverse circumstances and this usually involves a negative reaction to emotion. It is further suggested that unless major social and cultural changes are initiated, such as increasing help seeking behaviour in males, the rates of suicide will increase (Pridmore & McArthur, 2009).

Typically research on suicide consists of literature reviews, analyses based on mortality data, questionnaires of outpatients from psychiatric clinics and quantitative reviews of case studies (Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing, 2007). One of the largest difficulties faced by researchers relates directly to the methodological and ethical challenges faced when undertaking such research as randomised controlled trials are currently impossible due to these limitations (Ford, 2005; Goldney, 2006). Additionally, the use of questionnaires on outpatients can produce unrealistic results which cannot be applied to the general population (Rhebergen et al., 2009). One of the primary issues identified by numerous researchers relates to the issue of using ABS mortality data as it often reflects an underreporting of suicide (Large & Nielssen, 2010; Doessel, Williams, & Robertson, 2011). The ABS openly acknowledges this issue and publishes a caution which states that the number of open coronial cases with insufficient information for coding will affect the overall results of suicide mortality data (ABS, 2009). Moreover, coding for intent of suicide by coroners can be affected by coroner bias due to legislative or regulatory barriers, sympathy for the family, or sensitivity due to religious beliefs or cultural practices of the family (ABS, 2009). Elnour and Harrison (2009) have confirmed this underestimation of suicide during the period of 2000 to 2005 by comparing data from the online National Coroners Information System to the ABS data. It was found that due to incomplete coronal coding suicide was often misinterpreted as unintentional injury this resulted in an underestimation of over 8% which equates to over 1000 deaths being misinterpreted (Elnour & Harrison, 2009). The consequences of the underreporting of suicide are numerous as it masks the extent of the problem in Australia this makes it impossible to identify which groups are most at risk and if policy and program initiatives are having any effect on target populations (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010).

**Cultural and Social Analysis ** As mentioned earlier the primary issue surrounding male suicide is self stigmatisation which is due to the traditional masculine ideology (Hammer & Vogel, 2010). According to //Socialisation Theory// the traditional masculine ideology is engendered at birth when parents/caretakers assign the child a gender this is achieved through naming, choice of toys and the colour of the child’s room and clothing (Chafetz, 2006). Gender role socialisation is then learned from social environments in which cultural values, norms and ideologies are taught through the agents of socialisation such as the family, the schools and the media which reinforce and model the appropriate gendered behaviour expected by society (Chafetz, 2006; Englar-Carlson & Stevens, 2006). This socialisation process continues throughout childhood, teenage years, and young adulthood (Chafetz, 2006). It is arguable that people may not be affected equally by gender role norms but in Western countries traditional masculinity is the dominant mainstream norm (Englar-Carlson & Stevens, 2006).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">According to O’Neil (2008) //The Masculine Mystique Model// stipulates that men are socialised towards independence and achievement, the avoidance of feminine and homosexual characteristics and the restriction or suppression of emotional expression. O’Neil posits that these norms are internalised into ideals that encourage emotional disconnection, status seeking and achievement, and interpersonal dominance (2008). The failure to meet these internalised ideals can produce gender role conflict which leads to psychological distress and social condemnation (Englar-Carlson & Stevens, 2006). This in turn affects self stigmatisation of males which leads to a lower probability of help seeking which in turn affects the diagnosis and treatment of mental disorders (Smith et al., 2008). This can then eventuate in maladaptive responses to negative life circumstances which can result in suicide (Pridmore & McArthur, 2009). <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">The issue of suicide affects Australian males aged fifteen to over eighty years old (ABS, 2009). Additionally, the rates of suicide and attempted suicide are higher in rural and remote areas with very remote regions having suicide rates more than double that of capital cities (Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). For Australian rural males the traditional masculine ideology is prevalent as is the stigmatisation of mental health (Large & Nielssen, 2010; Commonwealth of Australia, 2010). Awareness of this issue is vitally important as suicide is preventable and society currently promotes maladaptive ways of coping with negative life circumstances (Pridmore & McArthur, 2009).

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Public health experts should focus on developing a public health campaign which uses social media to target males. As social media is generally used alone and in the comfort of one’s home it cannot be stigmatised by peers and has the potential to combat self-stigmatisation (Nicholas, Oliver, Lee, & O’Brien, 2004). A long term goal of the public health system should be to re-establish healthy gender roles by teaching males help seeking behaviour this would need to start at pre-school and could use the education system throughout the life span (Pridmore & McArthur, 2009).

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Artefact Analysis and Learning Reflection **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">The photograph ‘Worst enemy’ is a good example of how the socialisation of males has lead to the stigmatisation of mental health and suicide which has resulted in the reduced ability of males to seek help as they do not want to be seen as weak. Personally I think that the male depicted in the photograph is representative of the masculine ideal body and therefore embodies the theme of this report more deeply as he too is suicidal regardless of reaching society’s masculine ideal. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">As a result of this report I have learned about the social and cultural issues that males face in seeking help. I did not realise that self stigmatisation started in childhood with the gendering of children. Nor did I contemplate deeply the reasons why male suicide rates are so high in comparison to females. Additionally, I discovered that there is an entire psychology devoted to males and how to approach their issues which are unique to their socialisation. As a psychology student this report has taught me that in future I should investigate the multiple influences of society and culture on statistical outcomes when interpreting data. Instead of just looking at the statistics of an issue the issue requires further investigation to determine the deeper roots of the problem. By doing this a person can be viewed in macro and micro terms thus enabling a more methodical approach to helping the client and the community.

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Links: **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">[|Report: the Hidden Toll Suicide in Australia]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">[|National Suicide Prevention Strategy]

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">Seeking Help: ** <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">[|Suicide Call Back Service] Phone: 1300 659 467

[|Kids Helpline] Phone: 1800 551 800

[|Life Line] Phone: 13 11 14

[|MensLine] Phone: 1300 78 99 78

**<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif';">References **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2009). //Causes of Death//. Retrieved from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Cantor, C., & Baume, P. (1998) Access to methods of suicide: what impact?. Australia and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, //32,// 8-14.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Chafetz, J. (2006). //Handbook of the Sociology of Gender// [EBL version]. Retrieved from: [|http://reader.eblib.com.au.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/(S(dowsnyfjoodqsvobva2czlx0))/Reader.aspx?p=371962&o=96&u=nGgcMbgIOS6tto8YjHzKuA%3d%3d&t=1320029146&h=95B178234E580E63543BA932B522451767235272&s=5041926&ut=245&pg=1&r=img&c=-1&pat=n#]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Doessel, D., Williams, R., & Robertson, J. (2011). Changes in the inequality of mental health: suicide in Australia,1907—2003. //Health Economics, Policy and Law, 6,// 23–42.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Elnour, A., & Harrison, J. (2009). Suicide decline in Australia: where did the cases go?. //Australia and New Zealand Public Health, 33,// 67-9. doi: 10.1111/j.1753-6405.2009.00341.x

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Englar-Carlson, M., & Stevens, M. (2006). //In the room with men: A casebook of therapeutic change// [EBL version]. Retrieved from: [|http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp01.library.qut.edu.au/ehost/detail?vid=3&hid=125&sid=7d47b0d0-8730-44ec-8387-d44e3ff0e62c%40sessionmgr111&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=pzh&AN=2006-02601-000]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Ford, G. (2005). Suicide in Australia: a public health perspective. //Health issues, 85,// 28-31.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Hammer, J., & Vogel, D. (2010). Men's help seeking for depression: the efficacy of a male-sensitive brochure about counseling. //The Counseling Psychologist, 38//(2), 296–313. doi: 10.1177/0011000009351937

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Large, M., & Nielssen, N. (2010). Suicide in Australia: meta-analysis of rates and methods of suicide between 1988 and 2007. //The Medical Journal of Australia, 192//(8), 432–437.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Lawrence, D., Kisely, S., & Pais, J. (2010). The epidemiology of excess mortality in people with mental illness. //The Canadian Journal of Psychiatry,// 55(12), 752-760.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Living Is For Everyone (LIFE) Framework, Australian Government Department of Health and Ageing (DHA). (2007). //Research and Evidence in Suicide Prevention.// Retrieved from LIFE suicide prevention Australia website []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Nicholas, J., Oliver, K., Lee, K., & O’Brien, M. (2004). Help-seeking behaviour and the internet: an investigation among Australian adolescents. //Australian e-Journal for the Advancement of Mental Health (AeJAMH), 3//(1), 16-23.

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">O'Neil, J. (2008). Summarizing 25 Years of Research on Men's Gender Role Conflict Using the Gender Role Conflict Scale. //The Counseling psychologist(0011-0000)////, 36//(3), 358-445. doi: 10.1177/0011000008317057

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Petrucci, B. (2009). //Worst Enemy// [Image]. Retrieved September 27, from []

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Pridmore, S., & McArthur, M. (2009). Suicide and western culture. //Australasian Psychiatry, 17//(1), 42-50. doi: 10.1080/10398560802596843

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Rhebergen, D., Beekman, A., Graaf, R., Nolen, W., Spijker, J., Hoogendijk, W., Penninx, B. (2009). The three-year naturalistic course of major depressive disorder, dysthymic disorder and double depression. //Journal of Affective Disorders, 115//(3), 450–459. doi:10.1016/j.jad.2008.10.018

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Rochlen, A., Whilde, M., & Hoyer, W. (2005). The real men. real depression campaign: overview, theoretical implications, and research considerations. //Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 6//(3), 186–194. doi: 10.1037/1524-9220.6.3.186

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Smith, J., Tran, G., & Thompson, R. (2008). Can the theory of planned behavior help explain men’s psychological help-seeking? Evidence for a mediation effect and clinical implications. //Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 9//(3), 179–192. doi: 10.1037/a0012158

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Tait, G., & Carpenter, B. (2010). Firearm suicide in Queensland. //Journal of Sociology, 46//(1), 83-98. doi 10.1177/1440783309337673


 * <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 120%;">Reflection Task **

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|Reflection: it is a mad world]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">‘Children Waiting for the Day They Feel Good’ – The Salience of Depression in Adolescence and Young Adulthood <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">By Madeleine Purdon

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Firstly I must commend you for your choice of cultural artefact it fits perfectly with your topic and you have argued its justification in a way which shows the depth of your thinking when selecting it. I played ‘Mad World’ as I read your piece and found that it lent drama and emotion to your public health issue and literature review. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">In your cultural/social analysis you mention Durkheim’s theory I wanted to mention that Egoistic suicide rates may also be influenced by bullying at school as individuals are aggressively ostracized from social groups this additionally can occur on the internet from sites such as facebook. Your recommendation to use the internet would also benefit these issues. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Overall your report is really well written and very easy and enjoyable to read. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Thanks, <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">-Jenna

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">[|Reflection: the food industry, the beauty myth, weight loss and capitalism]

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Obesity is a Capitalist Disease <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">By ?

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Your literature review is informative and demonstrates your knowledge of the topic. I agree with your statement that Coca-Cola is aggressively pursuing children in schools as I went to Kelvin Grove College and there was a soft drink vending machine in every building. I believe it was stated in a lecture that Coke’s motto is ‘within arm’s reach’ this is even the case at the university itself. Additionally I agree that there is a vast amount of money to be made by keeping the population overweight, not only in weight loss products but also through what Naomi Wolfe calls the beauty myth. In this respect it would be to make a population over weight and then make them strive for an ideal body. I believe it was the Body Shop which stated that there are 3 billion women who do not look like supermodels and only eight who do. It is frightening to dwell upon perhaps the fast food industry, the weight loss industry and the beauty industry are all in cahoots with one another? And out to get fresh blood/money while we are young, scary thought. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Your cultural analysis is very well written and food security is definitely a prevalent issue not only in our country but many others. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">Thank you for a very provocative and informative wiki it was a pleasure to read. <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">-Jenna

<span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman','serif'; font-size: 16px;">p.s. You need to pop your name, student number and tutor’s name on your wiki