Running+like+a+Girl?+How+equitable+is+the+playing+field+when+it+comes+to+women+in+sport?

Sherrilyn Lillie n8283168 Sophie Miller = = =Running like a Girl? Or Running Masculine? =

=Artefact =

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 * How to boost women sports **

The Germans find a way to stage a successful women's sport events Issue: Jul, 2008

At the beginning of Euro 2008, a historic football match between Germany and Austria drew huge media attention. But not for the final score of 10-5. No, in the build-up to the real Group B clash, an internet site staged a beach game between topless models. And frankly, football was definitely the winner

 Your playing staff is all important. To ensure quality, sign a group of wannabe models, preferably porn stars. Basic coordination is not essential – actually the clumsier the better
 * Step 1: Hot women **

 There does have to be point to any sport, so you need to provide something for the ladies to chase around while bending their bodies in interesting positions. Women and balls is a proven combo.
 * Step 2: A ball **

 For any prospective team owner, investing in actual kits is completely unnecessary. Simply painting the teams’ colours on topless bodies adds a whole new angle to keep an eye on.
 * Step 3: Body paint **


 * Women’s sport: **
 *  There’s a right way... **

 Watching incredibly hot Brazilian athletes jumping around the sand in skimpy bikinis is expected to be one of the major draws at the upcoming Beijing Olympics. Which is hardly prediction of the month...
 * Beach volleyball **

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 13.3333px;"> This was an idea that started – where else? – on pay-per-view TV as a halftime event during the Super Bowl in 2004. It has now developed into a 10-team league and is scheduled to kicks off this autumn.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 13.3333px;">Lingerie football **


 * <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 13.3333px;">And a wrong way ... **

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 13.3333px;"> We are all for encouraging women to exercise – and judging by the thunderous girls trudging around our region’s malls this summer, it’s nigh-on essential. But this? The lack of spectators tells its own story...
 * <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 13.3333px;"> Iranian football **

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">This media article was found inside Nox magazine in the July 2008 issue. The article features the above image of German beach volleyball players wearing nothing but a white g-sting. The team colours have been painted on the player’s bodies instead of wearing team uniforms. White body paint has been used to cover their bottoms too look like they are wearing boy shorts, as well as red body paint painted on their torsos to look like a t-shirt with black paint details. Following the photograph is a controversial article that provides a step-by-step plan on how to boost women sports from a hegemonic masculine view.

=<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-align: center;">Public Health Issue =

= = <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">This media artefact represents a sexist and male dominated view of women’s position within sport. Displayed in the media this artefact reinforces the gender constructs present within society. Traditional gender constructs of what is masculine and what is feminine create public health issues that are detrimental to women’s health. Physical and mental health of women is impacted from such popular images and articles as they create many risk factors that can lead to chronic disease and serious mental illness. These typical masculine views portrayed in the media have an instant impact on women and girls from an early age that can lead to conformity, body image issues, otherness, and overall health of young women.

=<span style="display: block; font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; text-align: center;">Literature Review =

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Current research has indicated that physical inactivity is the fourth leading risk factor for global mortality. It is evident that these levels of inactivity are rising, causing major implications for the prevalence of non-communicable diseases and general health of populations (WHO, 2011). The World Health Organization has estimated that approximately 21-25% of breast and colon cancers, 27% of diabetes, and 30% of ischemic heart disease burden are a direct result of physical inactivity.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">In Australia and in most Western countries, men are more likely to be involved in organized sport and physical activity than women (ABS, 2010). This relates to the traditional gender constructs of femininity and masculinity; conceptualised from a white, heterosexual, and class-based structure, hegemonic femininity creates an ideal image of how women should look, act, talk, and think (Krane et al., 2004). Women who are reflective of this 'ideal' image are accepted, appreciated and respected in society over those who do not conform to the hegemonic definition of femininity. The reproduction and reinforcement of these stereotypical ideologies is evident within the media via numerous mediums including magazines, movies, advertisements and television.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Recent studies have found that media is a major factor influencing women in sport as it reinforces and controls the hegemonic notions of femininity (Stevenson, 2002 and Buysse & Embser-Herbert, 2004). Stevenson (2002) and Hargreaves (1994) suggest that the media tends to ‘package’ women with their sport, according to the hegemonic view of femininity, in an attempt to please audiences and increase popularity. The primary result of this 'packaged' version of women’s sports is the exploitation of sexuality; women are regularly taken advantage of in sport promotion as 'sex sells'. The implementation of revealing outfits along with the encouragement for women athletes to pose for makeovers or soft pornography features (such as calendars or magazine features) are prominent examples of the media's manipulation of female sexuality to promote sport. Buysse and Ember-Herbert (2004) argue that this sexualised media portrayal of female athletes fails to represent women for who they are; as competent, elite athletes. These inappropriate depictions are less likely to show women as active participants in sport; instead, they are typically portrayed in passive, traditional feminine poses. This marginalisation of women reinforces the male dominance and control of sports, increasing the power of hegemonic views towards femininity and masculinity within society. This degradation of women's participation in sports has been further influenced by the marginal representation of women's sports within the media. Thus, the media instigates fundamental barriers for women's participation in sports and any significant change with respect to the conceptions of female athletes and their body’s (Buysse & Ember-Herber, 2004, and Roth & Basow, 2004, and Stevenson, 2002).

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Gender stereotypes and inequality are created and maintained by the media's representation of female athletes and their sports, along with the coinciding notions of traditional hegemonic views of femininity. <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">These gender stereotypes serve as a foundational influence upon the attitudes towards portraying athletes in the media (Buysse & Embser-Herbert, 2004). Stevenson (2002) argues that women athletes and women who are sporting fans are classed as 'other' due to stereotypes created by the media. Research shows that some sociologists of sport argue that it is an arena of male dominance and that the presence of female bodies of physically powerful structure poses a threat to the attitudes of that hegemonic masculinity. Stevenson (2002) argues that this then leads to threats upon women's power, through claims that women with physical capabilities are not 'real' women or through the deemphasising of their capabilities with the association of sex appeal. The accusation of a woman not being 'real' suggests that she is a lesbian or a man. Upon women's newly found triumphs in sporting events such as the Olympics, sex testing became a necessity to ensure that woman competitors were indeed female not male, this is an example provided by Stevenson (2002) of the ultimate accusation of masculinity. Using sex appeal as a promotion tool is a demeaning concept for female athletes as they are required to wear revealing outfits and incorporate dance routines into their normal sport in order to attract viewers and impress judges, whilst their male counterparts are not required to do so. The constant reproduction of these views throughout the media influences and reminds women that they are judged on their femininity and looks instead of their capability (Roth & Basow, 2004).

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Krane et al. (2004) believes that gender performance is not truly voluntary as social retributions for performing one's gender 'correctly' influence choice. Many women seek acceptance, appreciation and respect from others, thus if a woman wants to gain social acceptance then the only 'choice' seems to be conformity to the hegemonic view of femininity. Krane et al. (2004) agrees with Stevenson (2002) and Hargreaves (1994) on the fact that women athletes and their sports are marginalised and classed as 'other', this is due to the idea that masculinity is required to participate in sport, thus female athletes go against the 'ideal' feminine image.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Not participating in sport or physical activity can lead to osteoporosis, obesity and poor cardiovascular health (WHO, 2011), it is consequently essential for everyone to participate in sports or physical activity. Body image dissatisfaction is an issue that appears in girls as young as six years old and can lead to a struggle with body concerns throughout one's life cycle (Choate, 2005). Negative body image perceptions affect women's overall quality of life as it becomes the main focus, causing missed opportunities in developing other aspects of one's identity. Research has found that poor self-esteem, anxiety, public self-consciousness, depression and sexual inhibition are associated with issues of negative body image. Body dissatisfaction is also the primary precursor for the development of eating disorders in women, such as anorexia, nervosa and bulimia (Choate, 2005). These issues have been associated with the hegemonic ideologies of society which impact on the level of physical inactivity of a population.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Roth and Basow (2004) argue that if women were treated intellectually inferior to men purely due to their sex there would be outrage among society. However, when women are treated inferior to men according to sporting standards and physical strength it is socially accepted as society's traditional concepts have derived these concepts. The commonly accepted fact that women are physically weaker, shorter, smaller, have less muscle, can lift less, and run slower are the result of gendered stereotypes derived from the hegemonic views of femininity and masculinity yet research shows that these views are invalid and outdated. According to Dowing (2000, as cited in Roth & Basow, 2004) the average man is 10% to 15% larger than the average woman, also 24% of the women tested in the study could lift 100 pounds without weight training to enhance their heavy lifting ability. In a coinciding study by Gutmann (2000, as cited by Roth & Basow, 2004) it was found that women can leg press 110% of what males leg press according to weight per kilogram of lean body mass, thus women's leg muscles are stronger than men's, proving the socially accepted view that women are weak incorrect.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Current research shows that there are many benefits associated with sports for both women and men. Several different pieces of literature containing different methods of study all found that participation in sports and physical activities provide both physical and psychological health benefits. The main positive changes that were found are improved self-esteem and positive body image attitudes (Roth & Basow, 2004 and Krane et al., 2004, and Hannum & Espelange, 2005, and Choate, 2005). These positive changes enhance girls' and womens' ability to appreciate instead of devalue their body's capabilities and strengths (Choate, 2005). Participation in sports allows women to gain confidence, enhance the ability to lead, motivate, share, compete, gain self security, and reach goals better (Roth & Basow, 2004). Krane et al. (2004) also expands on the issue, stating that women athletes or women who participate in sport are less likely to become pregnant accidentally than their nonathletic peers.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">The benefits of sport improve women's wellbeing as it promotes a focus on health rather than body image and reduces the impact of risk factors associated with inactivity (WHO, 2011). The acceptance and encouragement of women's participation in sport can also positively result on males for it would incur a change in the outdated and invalid hegemonic views of femininity and masculinity prominent within today's society. A change in these stereotypical notions would alleviate the idea that the two oppose and rather present the two as partners with minor differences. Consequent changes in the idea of masculinity would provide a more encapsulating notion towards being 'male', allowing men who do not fit the current hegemonic characteristics to feel included. They will also no longer be ridiculed or expected, or unfairly forced, to carry out strenuous physical labour purely due to their sex and gender (Roth & Basow, 2004).

= Cultural and Social Analysis =

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">The absolute outcome of wellbeing of an individual is predicted by the surrounding life factors of education, class, and economic status, further factors of society and culture also influence and affect total wellbeing. As discussed in the literature review above, the ideologies of society that are derived from traditional cultures and the history of society, produce the hegemonic views about gender and gender roles which can be a huge detriment of health. Bourdieu (1984) believes that the different classes exhibit different lifestyles which reflect their class position within society. He argues that the life styles of individuals coincide with the position of social hierarchy in which an individual obtains. Therefore, we are able to link the role of hegemonic ideologies on gender with the participation levels of sport; as men are valued higher in the social hierarchy than women due to the history of human kind. Bourdieu provides a clear indicator of how society and culture influence and affect individuals ideologies to the extent where ‘choice’ is no longer truly voluntary, rather derived from the concepts of conformity in order to gain acceptability (Krane et al., 2004).

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Throughout history men have been perceived as being superior to women (Roth & Basow, 2004). According to the studies and literature above, this ideology holds invalid within society’s gender roles today as women are equal in physical strength and intelligence. However this ideology still remains true to the forms of constructed hegemonic femininity and masculinity within society. It is almost unimaginable what today would be like for women if individual ‘feminist’ did not stand up for the uphill battle of equality. It can be easily taken for granted the right women possess today, the right to vote or the right of equal pay, as the youth have not lived through the struggles of inequality on an intellectual level. Rather, the youth of today are exposed to the inequalities of gender roles, expectancies, and supposed ‘capabilities’ through the reproduced hegemonic genders by the media.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Women of all ages are affected on a psychological level when exposed to the reinforced hegemonic gender ideologies of the media. The media’s reproduced value of sexuality and body image, as discussed in the literature review above, affects women by influencing the image of the ideal ‘feminine’ body is what needs to be required for acceptance in society. This then leads to the issue of body dissatisfaction. Body dissatisfaction is the main predecessor for the development of eating disorders in women, such as anorexia, nervosa and bulimia (Choate, 2005).

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">In order to address the issues of poor mental health, chronic disease, and total wellbeing of the population, it is essential for public health experts to consider the hegemonic gender roles with the impacts on individuals ‘choices’ in their public health tactics. It is crucial to target the focus group of women at a young age in order to create social change. If girls as young as six can experience body dissatisfaction (Choate, 2005) then this is the starting point of the negative influence that the media’s representation of hegemonic femininity impacts. Creating change within society’s ideologies is an uphill battle as proven by the feminists throughout history. However the outcome for women to have equal rights on the playing field without being classed as ‘other’, and without the pressures of the ‘ideal’ feminine body impacting of their wellbeing, is worth the struggle.

= Analysis of the Artefact and Reflections of Learning =

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">The media article as the artefact, represents an absolute hegemonic masculine view of women’s position within society. It is artefacts like these that derive the studies within the literature above. ‘How to boost women sports’ is a perfect example of how the hegemonic views reinforced in the media can affect women mentally. Women see images and articles like this and realise that this is what men expect them to be, with ‘ideal’ femininely thin bodies, and wearing revealing and provocative clothing. The article also reinforces the ideology that women who are ‘masculine’ and participate in ‘masculine’ sports, such as football, are unattractive and classed as ‘other’.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Upon researching the equality of the playing field, I was amazed at the extent of information and different studies that all coincided with each other in their findings, discussions and conclusions. It amazes me that with all of the evidence suggesting women are equal to men along with the uphill struggle for women’s/ human rights campaigns, that the traditional social stigma of gender roles is still apparent within society today.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">On a personal level, the information I have acquired upon working on this assessment piece will be extremely helpful for my future experiences as an educator. This task has allowed my understanding of why and how individual’s circumstances are the way they are due to cultural and social life factors. This will also help me critically analyse students circumstances, providing students with better understanding and knowledge of societies influence on their gender roles, giving them a choice to which conformity is challenged.

= Learning engagement and reflection =

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;"> http://healthculturesociety.wikispaces.com/%09Alcohol-drinking-badass <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">I find it very interesting your analysis of religion, culture and social factors for the cause of alcoholism among the population of generation Y. It is an important issue for public health professionals to understand thoroughly, like you said in your wiki, as it may cause detrimental health impediments that can be permanent and life changing. Perhaps the values of Buddhists should be implemented into the public health system or into the education system to educate the younger generations in a way that suites the Australian lifestyle. I think that your artifact is bright, bold, eye-catching, and depicts the public health issue exactly according to your literature review.
 * <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">Welcome to Alcohol Drinking = Loss of Control! **

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">http://healthculturesociety.wikispaces.com/%27Gen+Y+gets+lost+in+the+realms+of+cyber+space <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">The artifact you have chosen for your wiki is a great example of the detrimental effects of cyber bullying. I feel you have written your piece persuasively and analytically with good reliable sources used for backing up your social and cultural analysis. The connection you have made with Maslow’s hierarchy of needs is a perfect insight of the possible detrimental effects from cyber bullying on adolescent individuals. Overall I find this an interesting and insightful piece of work. = = = = = References =
 * <span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif'; font-size: 16px;">‘Gen Y gets lost in the realms of cyber space’ **

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2010, April). //6285.0 - Involvement in Organised Sport and Physical Activity//. Retrieved October 5, 2011, from Australian Bureau of Statistics: http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/abs@.nsf/Products/6285.0~April+2010~Main+Features~Characteristics+of+persons+involved?OpenDocument

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Bourdieu, P. (1984). //Distinction: A social critique of the judgement of taste.// London: Routledge and Kegan Paul.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Bowker, A., Gadbois, S., & Cornock, B. (2003). Sports participation and self-esteem: Variations as a function of gender and gender role orientation. //Sex Roles// //, 49// (1), 47-58.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Buysse, J. a., & Embser-Herbert, M. S. (2004). Constructions of gender in sport: An analysis of intercollegiate media guide cover photographs. //Gender & Society// //, 18// (1), 66-81.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Choate, L. H. (2005). Toward a theoretical model of women's body image resilience. //Journal of Counseling and Development// //, 83// (3), 320-330.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Hale, C. J., Hannum, J. W., & Espelage, D. L. (2005). Social support and physical health: The importance of belonging. //Journal of American College Health// //, 53// (6), 276-284.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Hargreaves, J. (1994). //Sporting females: Critical issues in the history and sociology of women's sport.// London: Routledge.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Krane, V., Choi, P. Y., Baird, S. M., Aimar, C. M., & Kauer, K. J. (2004). Living the paradox: Female athletes negotiate femininity and mascularity. //Sex Roles// //, 50// (5), 315-329.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Roth, A., & Basow, S. A. (2004). Femininity, sports, and feminism: Developing a theory of physical liberation. //Journal of Sport & Social Issues// //, 28// (3), 245-265.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">Stevenson, D. (2002). Women, sport, and globalization: Competing discourses of sexuality and nation. //Journal of sport & social issues// //, 26// (2), 209-225.

<span style="font-family: 'Century Gothic','sans-serif';">World Health Organization. (2011, October). //Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity and Health.// Retrieved October 16, 2011, from World Health Organization: http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/pa/en/index.html

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