Women+In+Sport+-+Athletes+or+Sexual+Objects?

Name: Sabrina Kuhnhaeuser Student number: 08368538 Tutor: Abbey Hamilton

=Running like a Girl: How Equitable is the Playing Field when it comes to Women in Sport? =



**Artefact:**
The presented artefact is called “Young Female Swimmer on the starting block” and is published in 2008 in the Kazuya Akimoto Art Museum, an official web museum presenting over four-hundred abstract art paintings in the way of surrealism, expressionism or realism. The painting shows a young woman in the position of preparing on the starting block for jumping into the water. She is painted completely naked, with a strong, athletic, muscular body. She embodies a perfect athlete with a thin, sportive body. Not only is her sportive talent in the centre any more. Her sexuality is accentuated through a flawless body.

**Public Health Issue:**
In the area of sports, men and women are treated unequally. While women always have to fight for fairness and equal treatment in sport, men are highly over-represented in sports and sport media. The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports about a similar distribution of females and males in sport. However, the rates of female participants increases in lower levels of sport, rates of women represented in sport media decreases (Anderson, 2009). Furthermore, in society's attitude women are presented in sport media as sexual objectives and their attractiveness is more important than their sportive talent and success. Additionally, women develop feelings like fear and anxiety of failure, shame and adjustment about their bodies (Garrett, 2004). Therefore, women start to retreat from sport and become less active, if this issue is not resolved. Consequently, the risk of chronic diseases and mental health issues, associated with physical exercise, increases for inactive women (Miles, 2007).

**Literature Review:**
In the context of sport, there is a high variety of gender, sex, ages, ethnics, religions and races in modern society. The access to sport and physical activity improved significantly over the last forty years (Cunningham & Sagas, 2008). Women also have been achieved several benefits in higher levels of administration. For example, women have reached high-level positions, like the International Olympic Committee or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (Shaw & Frisby, 2006). Women are included in collegiate, professional and international sport, and in addition, female participation and opportunities for females doing physical exercise increased highly. Attitudes about female equity changed in many sectors. Women gained to work as executives, lawyers and professors.

Nonetheless, masculinity still plays an important role and many women have to fight against their male counterparts and have to overcome various barriers related to women's participation in sports and their representation in sport media. For example in the context of sport, female sport athletes are compared with male athletes and their sportive success (Lumpkin, 2009). Furthermore, men are still highly over-represented, especially in the higher levels of sport and in sport media (Anderson, 2009). Sport events from male athletes are presented in high levels in the media, whereas female sport is seen as unimportant, inconsequential or newsworthy. Because the media is the most powerful force for influencing attitudes of modern society, the female oppression in sports and sport media persists (Cunningham, 2003).

An English study examined the differences of sport reporting between male and female athletes by analysing different British newspapers and television channels. Results show that female athletes are treated unfairly in sport media. They have less coverage, their femininity was tended to emphasise, their achievements were played down, their reports and descriptions were often written in sexist language, and their physical characteristics were highlighted (George, Hartley & Paris, 2001).

Pursuing this further, Matteo (1986) differs between male appropriate types of sport, like soccer, football or basketball, female appropriate types of sport, such as gymnastics, ballet or ice skating, and finally neutral types of sport, for example softball, tennis and volleyball. In addition, these male appropriate sports are described as strong, active, aggressive and authoritative, whereas female appropriate sports are more aesthetic and the beauty of athletes is seen in the centre. Consequently, women doing male appropriate types of sport have to challenge sex role beliefs and judgements in these types of sport.

Research proves that the attractiveness and expertise of female sport athletes influence the coverage of female sport and sport events. Attractive female athletes receive more coverage in comparison to unattractive athletes, no matter whether they have expertise or not (Cunningham, Fink & Kenix, 2008). A research about the thoughts of boys about female athletes on photographs demonstrates that boys perceive female sport athletes as sex objects. Even in comparison to sexualized models, men pay more attention to sexualized athletes. For males, attractiveness and sexual appearance of female athletes stands out particularly (Daniels & Wartena, 2011).

According to the previous research, modern environment is responsible for emotional dependence of individuals. Women are shaped by advertising work and the way of representation of female sport athletes to have a flawless, sexy body. Successful body management becomes a condition for successful social integration. Many women cannot hold this psychological pressure of perfect body management. They develop fear and anxiety of judgement and failure. Additionally, they are scared not to match of society's imagination of perfect athletes and to get despised by society especially by their male counteracts. Consequently, they withdraw from physical exercise and sports in various stages of their life. Research examines the way how women identify themselves within the context of physical activity. A feminist poststructuralist methodology focuses on their different experiences. Women were asked through semi-structured interviews about gender, body and physical experiences. Results also confirm that women are pressurised of an ideal body but also of a traditional understanding of gender. Problematically, all women cope differently with this pressure. Whereas some participants described their experiences as embarrassing and humiliating, other women were happy with their experiences and felt comfortable within the context of physical activity and their physical identity. Due to the fact that active women have a better understanding and control of their own body and it also may help to empower themselves, young women should be supported to counteract the pressure and attitudes of society and to prevent that women do not retract from physical exercise (Garret, 2004).

Besides the negative effects of missing physical exercise, such as higher risk of heart diseases, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (Miles, 2007), physical activity is also associated with mental health issues. Active people are at a lower risk for developing depression and anxiety than inactive people. Consequently, people doing regular physical exercise report about a better general health and psychological well-being (Oeland, 2010).

Nonetheless, there was also a view limitations comparing the methodologies used in different research. Considered to unequal treatment of women in sports and sport media, studies limit on single types of sports. Before result may be generalised several sports must be analysed and compared (Cunningham, 2003). Furthermore, it must be considered that studies focus on particular group of people, with special attention to young women. Accordingly, results cannot be related to other generations.

**Cultural and social analysis:**
Women have to overcome various barriers and challenges when engaging in physical activity or exercise. Some women, characterised with low self-esteem, have difficulties to cope overcoming problems. As result, they often withdraw from sports and appropriate an unhealthy inactive lifestyle. These behaviours are formed by social, cultural and gender related influences of the society.

Bourdieu (1986), follows the theory of social reproduction. He describes a human body as a symbolic value of physical capital and management. In modern society the way of presenting a body as well as its development present individual social identities. Furthermore, bodies are responsible to purchase social capital and influence the engagement in a physical culture. Consequently, individuals belief they can achieve an appearance they desire. But due to this, they get measured and evaluated to their bodily shape and outward signs by modern society. There are powerful cultural forces defining, forming and controlling female bodies (Garrett, 2004). The cultural ideal female body is a thin, tubular-shaped body. Already young girls learn from modern society and advertisement that thin is beautiful and fat is ugly. Consequently, the rates of young women diagnosed with anorexia or underweight increased dramatically since the 1960s to the 1990s. Contrary to these findings, the rates of normal weight people decreased in same time period (Saraceni & Russell-Mayhew, 2007).

However, for many young women the ideal of a thin, athletic body is unrealistic and impossible, and they end up in depression, anxiety, guilt and experience great levels of stress. Additionally, research shows that because of the pressure of an ideal body, women can be alienated from their bodies (Garrett, 2004). To counteract this issue, public health has to begin to understand how young women identify themselves within the modern society in the context of physical activity. It is important to know why young women react in a special way, what their reasons are and why some young women more are impacted of the public health issue than others. Thereupon, specific strategies can be implemented to improve the health and well-being of impacted women. Garret (2004) emphasise that health education is an important and successful starting point. Women must be educated of the importance of regular physical activity and healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, the reinforcement of self-esteem and self-confidence is an additional approach to empower young women. It aims at strengthen women overcome the pressure of society and male judgement of a perfect ideal body. Finally, the most important and probably most difficult approach is the society's attitude. Promotional posters, commercials and the representation of female athletes in sport media always present young, thin women with flawless, perfect bodies. Women who do not match this ideal get judged especially by the male part of society. To counteract the overcoming mental health issues it is necessary that the society changes its image of thin, flawless female bodies to normal weight not sexualized bodies. These approaches are necessary to change general image of perfect female bodies, to treat women and men equally and to see female athletes as athletes and not as sexual objects.

**Analysis of artefact and learning reflection:**
The artefact “Young Female Swimmer on the starting block” presents a naked female swimmer with an athletic and muscular body. It represents the society's attitude of how a female body should look like. Not the sportive activity of the female athlete is in the foreground but their sexual attractiveness and passivity. Female athletes have to match the ideal image of a perfect sportive with a flawless, muscular but also feminine body. Consequently women in all parts of society have to fight against common challenges like judgements of the male society, discrimination especially in male-dominated sport-areas and under-representation in sport media.

On my search for a suitable artefact and research material I realised how relevant and common this topic is. Inequality and unfair treatment in sport and the representation of female sport media is mostly formed by cultural norms. As a female gymnast, I am shocked that society weight different types of sport more than others. Furthermore, photos of female gymnasts with accentuation of their sexual attractiveness shows that society does not respect female athletes and their sportive success. Through this assessment I have learned that media and cultural norms have a great influence on the representation of female athletes, the expectations of female bodies and sexuality, and are responsible for the participation in sport. It is necessary to overcome and counteract against this issue to support and emancipate women for higher participation and equal treatment in sport, and to prevent chronic diseases, mental health issues and eating disorders.

**References:**
Anderson, E.D. (2009). The Maintance of Masculinity Among the Stakeholders of Sport. //Sport Management Review, 12//, 3-14. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2008.09.003

Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed. ), //Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education// (pp. 241-258). New York, Greenwood Press.

Cunningham, G.B. (2003). Media Coverage of Women's Sport: A New Look at an Old Problem. //Physical Educator, 60//(2), 43-49.

Cunningham, G.B. & Sagas M. (2008). Gender and Sex Diversity in Sport Organizations: Introduction to a Special Issue. //Sex Roles, 58//(8), 371-378. doi: 10.1007/s1119-007-9360-8

Cunningham, G.B., Fink, J.S. & Kenix, L.J. (2008). Choosing an Endorser for a Women's Sponsoring Event: The Interaction of Attractiveness and Expertise. //Sex Roles, 58//, 371-378. doi: 10.1007/s11199-007-9340-z

Daniels, E.A. & Wartena, H. (2011). Athlete or Sex Symbol: What Boys Think of Media Representations of Female Athletes. //Sex Roles, 65//(7), 566-579. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-9959-7

Garrett, R. (2004). Negotiating a physical identity: girls, bodies and physical education. Sport, //Education and Society, 9//(2), 223-237. doi: 10.1080/135733204200023395

George, C, Hartley, A. & Paris, J.(2001). The representation of female athletes in textual and visual media. //An International Journal, 6//(2), 94-101.

Lumpkin, A. (2009). Female Representation in Feature Articles Published by Sport Illustrated in the 1990s. //Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 18//(2),38-51.

Matteo, S. (1986). The Effect of Sex and Gender-Schematic Processing on Sport Participation. //Sex Roles, 15//(7), 417-432.

Miles, L. (2007). Physical activity and health. N//utrition Bulletin, 32//(4), 314-363.

Oeland, A.-M., Leassoe, U., Oelson, A.V. & Munk-Jørgensen, P. (2010). Impact of exercise on patients with depression and anxiety. //Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 64//(3), 210-217. doi:10.3109/08039480903511373

Saraceni, R. & Russell-Mayhew, S. (2007). Images and Ideal: Counselling Women and Girls in a “Thin-is-in” Culture. //Canadian Journal of Counselling, 41//(2), 91-106.

Shaw, S. & Frisby, W. (2006). Can Gender Equity Be More Equitable?: Promoting an Alternative Frame for Sport Management Research, Education, and Practice. //Journal of Sport Management, 20//(4), 483-509.

Comments:
[]

Hey, I like your artefact. It is a nice picture with an important message. At the first glance of the picture, it is not clear what this picture or advertisement wants to say. First after a deeper contemplation you might understand its message and its notice that it is important to protect against sexual transmitted diseases. Every detail of this artefact refers to an important part of the topic 'sexual health'. Therefore, people who see this advertisement need to have a deeper look to understand what it is about. Consequently, they are involved in the topic automatically and they are hired to think about this topic and their own sexual behaviour.

[]

I really enjoyed reading your wiki. It is still incredible that women in this modern society have to fight for respect and acceptance in sport and that this fight already starts in young age. The low participation of women in sport has also a lot of adverse health consequences. Mental health issues and physical diseases might follow as result of inactivity. In modern society with an increase of chronic diseases and mental health problems like depression, it should not be accepted that women in sport always are judged and discriminated. They should be more involved and supported doing sports and be active. But probably, this might be a difficult challenge to prevent.  **1. Artefact:** The presented artefact is called “Young Female Swimmer on the starting block” and is published in 2008 in the Kazuya Akimoto Art Museum, an official web museum presenting over four-hundred abstract art paintings in the way of surrealism, expressionism or realism. The painting shows a young woman in the position of preparing on the starting block for jumping into the water. She is painted completely naked, with a strong, athletic, muscular body. She embodies a perfect athlete with a thin, sportive body. Not only is her sportive talent in the centre any more. Her sexuality is accentuated through a flawless body. In the area of sports, men and women are treated unequally. While women always have to fight for fairness and equal treatment in sport, men are highly over-represented in sports and sport media. The Australian Bureau of Statistics reports about a similar distribution of females and males in sport. However, the rates of female participants increases in lower levels of sport, rates of women represented in sport media decreases (Anderson, 2009). Furthermore, in society's attitude women are presented in sport media as sexual objectives and their attractiveness is more important than their sportive talent and success. Additionally, women develop feelings like fear and anxiety of failure, shame and adjustment about their bodies (Garrett, 2004). Therefore, women start to retreat from sport and become less active, if this issue is not resolved. Consequently, the risk of chronic diseases and mental health issues, associated with physical exercise, increases for inactive women (Miles, 2007). In the context of sport, there is a high variety of gender, sex, ages, ethnics, religions and races in modern society. The access to sport and physical activity improved significantly over the last forty years (Cunningham & Sagas, 2008). Women also have been achieved several benefits in higher levels of administration. For example, women have reached high-level positions, like the International Olympic Committee or the National Collegiate Athletic Association (Shaw & Frisby, 2006). Women are included in collegiate, professional and international sport, and in addition, female participation and opportunities for females doing physical exercise increased highly. Attitudes about female equity changed in many sectors. Women gained to work as executives, lawyers and professors. Nonetheless, masculinity still plays an important role and many women have to fight against their male counterparts and have to overcome various barriers related to women's participation in sports and their representation in sport media. For example in the context of sport, female sport athletes are compared with male athletes and their sportive success (Lumpkin, 2009). Furthermore, men are still highly over-represented, especially in the higher levels of sport and in sport media (Anderson, 2009). Sport events from male athletes are presented in high levels in the media, whereas female sport is seen as unimportant, inconsequential or newsworthy. Because the media is the most powerful force for influencing attitudes of modern society, the female oppression in sports and sport media persists (Cunningham, 2003). An English study examined the differences of sport reporting between male and female athletes by analysing different British newspapers and television channels. Results show that female athletes are treated unfairly in sport media. They have less coverage, their femininity was tended to emphasise, their achievements were played down, their reports and descriptions were often written in sexist language, and their physical characteristics were highlighted (George, Hartley & Paris, 2001). Pursuing this further, Matteo (1986) differs between male appropriate types of sport, like soccer, football or basketball, female appropriate types of sport, such as gymnastics, ballet or ice skating, and finally neutral types of sport, for example softball, tennis and volleyball. In addition, these male appropriate sports are described as strong, active, aggressive and authoritative, whereas female appropriate sports are more aesthetic and the beauty of athletes is seen in the centre. Consequently, women doing male appropriate types of sport have to challenge sex role beliefs and judgements in these types of sport. Research proves that the attractiveness and expertise of female sport athletes influence the coverage of female sport and sport events. Attractive female athletes receive more coverage in comparison to unattractive athletes, no matter whether they have expertise or not (Cunningham, Fink & Kenix, 2008). A research about the thoughts of boys about female athletes on photographs demonstrates that boys perceive female sport athletes as sex objects. Even in comparison to sexualized models, men pay more attention to sexualized athletes. For males, attractiveness and sexual appearance of female athletes stands out particularly (Daniels & Wartena, 2011). According to the previous research, modern environment is responsible for emotional dependence of individuals. Women are shaped by advertising work and the way of representation of female sport athletes to have a flawless, sexy body. Successful body management becomes a condition for successful social integration. Many women cannot hold this psychological pressure of perfect body management. They develop fear and anxiety of judgement and failure. Additionally, they are scared not to match of society's imagination of perfect athletes and to get despised by society especially by their male counteracts. Consequently, they withdraw from physical exercise and sports in various stages of their life. Research examines the way how women identify themselves within the context of physical activity. A feminist poststructuralist methodology focuses on their different experiences. Women were asked through semi-structured interviews about gender, body and physical experiences. Results also confirm that women are pressurised of an ideal body but also of a traditional understanding of gender. Problematically, all women cope differently with this pressure. Whereas some participants described their experiences as embarrassing and humiliating, other women were happy with their experiences and felt comfortable within the context of physical activity and their physical identity. Due to the fact that active women have a better understanding and control of their own body and it also may help to empower themselves, young women should be supported to counteract the pressure and attitudes of society and to prevent that women do not retract from physical exercise (Garret, 2004). Besides the negative effects of missing physical exercise, such as higher risk of heart diseases, obesity, type 2 diabetes mellitus (Miles, 2007), physical activity is also associated with mental health issues. Active people are at a lower risk for developing depression and anxiety than inactive people. Consequently, people doing regular physical exercise report about a better general health and psychological well-being (Oeland, 2010). Nonetheless, there was also a view limitations comparing the methodologies used in different research. Considered to unequal treatment of women in sports and sport media, studies limit on single types of sports. Before result may be generalised several sports must be analysed and compared (Cunningham, 2003). Furthermore, it must be considered that studies focus on particular group of people, with special attention to young women. Accordingly, results cannot be related to other generations. Women have to overcome various barriers and challenges when engaging in physical activity or exercise. Some women, characterised with low self-esteem, have difficulties to cope overcoming problems. As result, they often withdraw from sports and appropriate an unhealthy inactive lifestyle. These behaviours are formed by social, cultural and gender related influences of the society. Bourdieu (1986), follows the theory of social reproduction. He describes a human body as a symbolic value of physical capital and management. In modern society the way of presenting a body as well as its development present individual social identities. Furthermore, bodies are responsible to purchase social capital and influence the engagement in a physical culture. Consequently, individuals belief they can achieve an appearance they desire. But due to this, they get measured and evaluated to their bodily shape and outward signs by modern society. There are powerful cultural forces defining, forming and controlling female bodies (Garrett, 2004). The cultural ideal female body is a thin, tubular-shaped body. Already young girls learn from modern society and advertisement that thin is beautiful and fat is ugly. Consequently, the rates of young women diagnosed with anorexia or underweight increased dramatically since the 1960s to the 1990s. Contrary to these findings, the rates of normal weight people decreased in same time period (Saraceni & Russell-Mayhew, 2007). However, for many young women the ideal of a thin, athletic body is unrealistic and impossible, and they end up in depression, anxiety, guilt and experience great levels of stress. Additionally, research shows that because of the pressure of an ideal body, women can be alienated from their bodies (Garrett, 2004). To counteract this issue, public health has to begin to understand how young women identify themselves within the modern society in the context of physical activity. It is important to know why young women react in a special way, what their reasons are and why some young women more are impacted of the public health issue than others. Thereupon, specific strategies can be implemented to improve the health and well-being of impacted women. Garret (2004) emphasise that health education is an important and successful starting point. Women must be educated of the importance of regular physical activity and healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, the reinforcement of self-esteem and self-confidence is an additional approach to empower young women. It aims at strengthen women overcome the pressure of society and male judgement of a perfect ideal body. Finally, the most important and probably most difficult approach is the society's attitude. Promotional posters, commercials and the representation of female athletes in sport media always present young, thin women with flawless, perfect bodies. Women who do not match this ideal get judged especially by the male part of society. To counteract the overcoming mental health issues it is necessary that the society changes its image of thin, flawless female bodies to normal weight not sexualized bodies. These approaches are necessary to change general image of perfect female bodies, to treat women and men equally and to see female athletes as athletes and not as sexual objects. The artefact “Young Female Swimmer on the starting block” presents a naked female swimmer with an athletic and muscular body. It represents the society's attitude of how a female body should look like. Not the sportive activity of the female athlete is in the foreground but their sexual attractiveness and passivity. Female athletes have to match the ideal image of a perfect sportive with a flawless, muscular but also feminine body. Consequently women in all parts of society have to fight against common challenges like judgements of the male society, discrimination especially in male-dominated sport-areas and under-representation in sport media. On my search for a suitable artefact and research material I realised how relevant and common this topic is. Inequality and unfair treatment in sport and the representation of female sport media is mostly formed by cultural norms. As a female gymnast, I am shocked that society weight different types of sport more than others. Furthermore, photos of female gymnasts with accentuation of their sexual attractiveness shows that society does not respect female athletes and their sportive success. Through this assessment I have learned that media and cultural norms have a great influence on the representation of female athletes, the expectations of female bodies and sexuality, and are responsible for the participation in sport. It is necessary to overcome and counteract against this issue to support and emancipate women for higher participation and equal treatment in sport, and to prevent chronic diseases, mental health issues and eating disorders. **References:**
 * 2. Public Health Issue:**
 * 3. Literature Review:**
 * 4. Cultural and social analysis:**
 * 5. Analysis of artefact and learning reflection:**

1. Anderson, E.D. (2009). The Maintance of Masculinity Among the Stakeholders of Sport. //Sport Management Review, 12//, 3-14. doi: 10.1016/j.smr.2008.09.003 2. Bourdieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. Richardson (Ed. ), //Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education// (pp. 241-258). New York, Greenwood Press. 3. Cunningham, G.B. (2003). Media Coverage of Women's Sport: A New Look at an Old Problem. //Physical Educator, 60//(2), 43-49. 4. Cunningham, G.B. & Sagas M. (2008). Gender and Sex Diversity in Sport Organizations: Introduction to a Special Issue. //Sex Roles, 58//(8), 371-378. doi: 10.1007/s1119-007-9360-8 5. Cunningham, G.B., Fink, J.S. & Kenix, L.J. (2008). Choosing an Endorser for a Women's Sponsoring Event: The Interaction of Attractiveness and Expertise. //Sex Roles, 58//, 371-378. doi: 10.1007/s11199-007-9340-z 6. Daniels, E.A. & Wartena, H. (2011). Athlete or Sex Symbol: What Boys Think of Media Representations of Female Athletes. //Sex Roles, 65//(7), 566-579. doi: 10.1007/s11199-011-9959-7 7. Garrett, R. (2004). Negotiating a physical identity: girls, bodies and physical education. Sport, //Education and Society, 9//(2), 223-237. doi: 10.1080/135733204200023395 8. George, C, Hartley, A. & Paris, J.(2001). The representation of female athletes in textual and visual media. //An International Journal, 6//(2), 94-101. 9. Lumpkin, A. (2009). Female Representation in Feature Articles Published by Sport Illustrated in the 1990s. //Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal, 18//(2),38-51. 10. Matteo, S. (1986). The Effect of Sex and Gender-Schematic Processing on Sport Participation. //Sex Roles, 15//(7), 417-432. 11. Miles, L. (2007). Physical activity and health. N//utrition Bulletin, 32//(4), 314-363. 12. Oeland, A.-M., Leassoe, U., Oelson, A.V. & Munk-Jørgensen, P. (2010). Impact of exercise on patients with depression and anxiety. //Nordic Journal of Psychiatry, 64//(3), 210-217. doi:10.3109/08039480903511373 13. Saraceni, R. & Russell-Mayhew, S. (2007). Images and Ideal: Counselling Women and Girls in a “Thin-is-in” Culture. //Canadian Journal of Counselling, 41//(2), 91-106. 14. Shaw, S. & Frisby, W. (2006). Can Gender Equity Be More Equitable?: Promoting an Alternative Frame for Sport Management Research, Education, and Practice. //Journal of Sport Management, 20//(4), 483-509.