If+you+let+me+play....Five+small+words+can+wipe+millions+off+future+social+burden

Name: Fiona Mann Student Number: 840 8416 Tutor's Name: Katie Page

The Centre for Disease Control issued a report last year which outlines that girls who play sport and are involved in physical activity have improved levels of self efficacy, a more positive self image, reduced risks of chronic diseases, better academic performance and the avoidance of obesity later in life.

Two important questions exist: Why are girls leaving sport at a young age? In addition, why then, given the unquestionable benefits, is encouraging girls to participate in physical activity not a high level priority for society, governments, educators and parents?

** __Artefact Analysis__ **
media type="file" key="Nike Woman - If You Let Me Play 1995 - YouTube.flv" align="left" width="396" height="297"The Nike advertisement is from 1995 and it depicts a number of young girls across a variety of ages, races and socio economic backgrounds. They all propose different benefits, mental, physical and emotional which they will accrue should they be "allowed" to play sport. The television commercial was aimed at increasing the participation of young girls in sport in America in the mid 1990's which was just following the twenty year anniversary of the ground breaking Title IX legislation which effectively outlawed any gender inequality in participation in sport.

When watching, make note of the fact that interestingly it outlines mental and emotional benefits of sports involvement, such as strength,confidence and assertiveness, which have only recently become acceptable social traits in females. This is opposed to the traditional physical benefits which have historically been utilised as the main rationale behind getting young girls involved in sport.

**__The Social and Public Health Issue__**
The top cause of death for females in 2009 in Australia was heart disease with other chronic diseases including; diabetes, heart failure, renal problems and mental illness all in the top ten. (Australian Bureau of Satistics, 2009). Chronic disease is a key national health priority area with the main risk factors for these diseases being largely modifiable via lifestyle, nutrition and primarily improved levels of physical activity.

While preventing morbidity and death is a primary goal, for a moment consider the economics. In 2008 the Australian government spent $103.6 billion on health care, equating to nearly 10% of GDP and growing at 9% per annum. Historically, approximately 50% of this spend has been directed at chronic disease care. (AIHW, 2003). As a total cost including lost productivity as well as actual health care, obesity itself has been estimated to cost the country nearly $60 billion. (Access Economics, 2008).

It is irrefutable that there is a huge public health and financial benefit to acrrue to society from something as simple as more girls staying engaged in sport and physical activity.

**__Literature review__**

 * //“No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance..." Title IX legislation USA (1972)//**

According to the 2007 Australian National Children's Nutrition and Physical Activity survey, the participation in physical activity declines twice as much for girls as for boys after the age of 13. After the age of 13, just over 35% of girls are getting the required levels of physical activity. Despite the introduction of Title IX legislation in 1972, (referred to above), in the US girls participatiion in physical activity havs been reported at as low as 11.5% for some high school girls, (Centre for Disease Control, 2010).

The question is why are girls dropping out of sport and physical activity when there are obviously such large emotional and physical benefits now and in the future? To fully understand the logic behind this, an analysis of society as well as modern and historic theorists is required.

Gender and behavioural differences are instilled in children from a young age by parents, society and, many would argue, genetics (Greendorfer, 1983). It is recognised the nature versus nurture discussion is also likely to be influential, however is outside the scope of this analysis. It is found continuously in research that parents and influencers often encourage boys to play outside and engage in more physical pursuits, whereas girls are often encouraged to play indoors or in quieter less physical activities. (Lyu & Gill, 2011). This early initiation into expectations no doubt has a direct effect on the desire of girls to participate in sport at a later stage.

Almost all research into the reduction of physical activity in girls as they age can be categorised under a framework of three rationales as suggested by Kay (2003).

Firstly the medical rationale, that females are physiologically not designed to participate in sport. As we will discuss later, it can be argued that when it comes to equality in physical activity or sport, early liberal feminists almost reinforced this view with their ideas that all should be equal //despite// physical attributes.

Secondly is the aesthetic rationale that females engaging in sport are an unattractive spectacle. This is reinforced by the views of what comprises feminine behaviour and is akin to the suggestion of the direction of girl’s play at an early age outlined above. Young, (and older), females are often self conscious about their bodies and participating physical activity often shines a spotlight on this concern, (Kay, 2003).

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Finally the social rationale that the qualities and behaviours associated with sport are contrary to real femininity. Desirable “feminine” attributes are simply not synonymous with the pursuit of physical activity. These include aggression, self confidence, and quick decision making. Many young girls see these attributes as unattractive and as such physical activity becomes of low priority, (Lyu & Gill, 2011).

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">This highlights an important issue of the dichotomy between femininity and athleticism which will be discussed further in this analysis.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Another rationale for girls dropping out of physical activity as described by Lyu and Gill, (2011) is that girls simply do not feel the enjoyment or self efficacy that is parallel with achieving competence in an activity. There is an inextricable link between perceived competence and intrinsic motivation. Self determination and cognitive evaluation theory dictate that competence in any activity is a pre requisite to gain intrinsic motivation. This motivation is necessary for physical activity to be undertaken on a sustained and continuous basis, (Ryan & Deci, 2007). Thus it can easily be postulated that the inability to gain any confidence in a skill set or in performing a physical activity will limit a girl’s motivation to continue in a sport.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Consider this quote from a 13 year old girl about a physical education class: “ I can't do the endurance run. I tried but I threw up. I could only do 8 laps out of 12. Now the teacher is trying to make me do it again. I know I'll just fail it again. I won't go to PE again” (Olafson, 2002). This is indicative of the lack of competence which also can be construed as self efficacy directly impacting a girls desire to engage in physical activity. Building intrinsic motivation in this scenario is impossible.

<span style="color: #000000; font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">An additional perspective on the topic is from Mc Dowell, (1999), who argues that the realm of private space is typically a feminine domain and the public space, often where sport and physical activity takes place, is a masculine one. Consequently this space becomes a realm where women feel excluded as hypothesised by Rosewarne (2005). In other words the artefacts and objects contained within the public realm, such as suggestive, sometimes pornographic outdoor advertising make women feel uncomfortable, “decorative and ornamental”. It is entirely plausible that this feeling has an impact on girls wanting to participate in sport and physical activity.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">It is important to note that there are limitations associated with the study of this topic. Research is often based on single cohorts, which can potentially lend itself to a number of biases. Measurement bias can occur in testing and the instruments utilised to test subjects. The selection of subjects can cause some skewness in the results, if all subjects have little or no participation in physical activity or conversely are all junior athletes, data can be unusable. Historical bias can also impact on results, be it medical, familial or emotional. (DeBate, Gabriel, Zwald, Huberty & Zhang, 2009).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Perhaps the biggest challenge however in gaining accurate and valid data is that the data is being obtained from young girls and typically under the age of 13, it takes highly skilled interviewers to ensure that the data is accurate.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">However, given that the body of research examined, all supports declining participation rates and the rationales given for this are repeated in many different types of studies it can be stated with confidence that this phenomenon is occurring.

**__Cultural and Social Analysis__**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">In an attempt to understand and appreciate why there is a decline in the participation rate of young girls in sport there is a need to examine the backdrop of theory and historical framework. One clear issue which resonates in all the rationales is the bifurcation between the two dominating concepts which provide a platform for this topic, being femininity and athletic or physical competence. This has been often alluded to but never fully resolved throughout history despite a strong feminist movement, (Roth & Basow, 2004)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">So what have the feminists said on this issue? In the eighteenth and nineteenth century liberal feminists such as Elizabeth Cady Stanton demanded equal rights for all irrespective of gender and importantly //irrespective// of the body and its capabilities, (Jaggar, 1983). Radical feminists then identified the differences and saw the strength and physiological differences as a tool for physically and ideologically maintaining male dominance. (Roth & Bassow, 2004). Post modern feminists struggled to rationalise the construction of bodies and is summed up in work by Butler (1990) who theorises that bodies are created differently and are constructed by “doing” femininity to build weakness and “doing” masculinity to build strength.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">This feminist backdrop is relevant to the participation rates of girls in physical activity and sport. A contributing factor to the low participation rates as girls age is a result of a the fact that there has never been a true movement focusing on liberating women solely physically and removing the view that physical activity is unfeminine and socially and culturally abnormal. Castelnouvo and Guthrie (1994) also describe it as a //physical// empowerment and liberation, not only mental.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Given the above analysis it is clear that public health needs to focus its efforts on creating safe environments for girls to engage in and become confident and competent in performing physical activity. Single sex physical education classes have consistently been shown to assist in this, (Stevenson 2007). The curriculum also needs to be examined in some cases to facilitate this environment and instil activities which will improve self efficacy and promote the competence discussed earlier, (Olafson 2003).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Creating positive role models, be they teachers or athletes and parents is another important area to focus on as this could help to reduce the bifurcation in femininity and athleticism. (Olafson, 2003). Breaking down the rationales and showing our young girls in the same way we do with our boys that sport and physical activity is good for them and can be as feminine as the traditional methods of girls play.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Norms do not just happen by themselves, they are created by individuals and by us as a society. Thus the power to recreate them rests with us as well.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">How can we not act on these simple measures when we know for a fact that that among children and adolescents, physical activity is associated with more benefits? Lower rates of obesity, improved cardiovascular and muscular fitness, higher bone mineral density, improved psychosocial health, and academic achievement to mention a few. (Centre for Disease Control, 2006)

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">More specifically, girls who are physically active perform better academically and have higher self-esteem and self-worth when compared with their more sedentary counterparts. (Marsh & Kleitman, 2003).

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Longer term however, habits built as children carry over into adulthood. Given that physical activity is imperative in the promotion and maintenance of healthy body weight, risk factor reduction, and chronic disease prevention throughout life. (Heitzler, Martin, Duke & Huhman, 2006) it is necessary to do everything possible to encourage our young girls to maintain physical activity.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">It is an issue which will affect everyone due to the enormous social burden of future healthcare. If we ignore it we will risk losing the benefits and productivity of a generation of self confident, healthy, happy females.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">To ignore this trend is really akin to social and economic suicide!

**__Analysis of the Artefact and Learning Reflections__**
<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">The Nike advertisement is trying to tell us several things. Firstly that our girls //want// to play sport and engage in physical activity. Society is the one who have not created a safe and nurturing environment for this to occur.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">Secondly the benefits which accrue in pursuing a physically active lifestyle are outlined and have been reiterated throughout this analysis. Benefits are emotional and physical and are presented as issues parents and care givers have to face such as teenage pregnancy and domestic violence. It also aims to remove the aforementioned bifurcation between femininity and athleticism and refers to traits such as being strong and self confident as positive benefits for girls.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">This artefact resonates as I am an avid participant in sport and only became interested in later life. Sport has contributed to being able to achieve a number of things I did not feel were possible before I began participating. The discussion around self efficacy and confidence is one I have seen played out around me in many and varied forms both personally and by my peers I train with.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">The problems of future chronic disease and childhood obesity have prompted me to change careers and return to university and this advertisement is parallel with my views on how we can attempt to reverse the trends we see occurring in our young population, especially our girls. Initialting the change through our young girls!

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 110%;">The quote below is indicative of the empowerment and self confidence that can be achieved by keeping our girls active. Let's encourage the creation of a social norm where girls are sent outside to kick a footy as much as the boys. Its a simple measure to reap the benefits of a healthier population and a reduced burden on society in the future.

//** “Women have been taught that, for us, the earth is flat, and that if we venture out, we will fall off the edge. Some of us have ventured out nevertheless, and so far we have not fallen off. It is my faith, my feminist faith, that we will not.” Andrea Dworkin **//

References
 * Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2010). Children who are overweight or obese. //1301.0 Year Book Australia, 2009–10//, Canberra, ACT: Australian Government Publishing Service. Retrieved 10th October 2011 from []
 * Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2010). Chronic Disease. //1301.0 Year Book Australia, 2009–10//, Canberra, ACT: Australian Government Publishing Service. Retrieved 10th October 2011 from []
 * Australian Institute of Health and Welfare, (2008). Health Expenditure Australia 2007-08. HWE 46, Canberra, ACT: Australian Government Publishing Service
 * Al-Nakeeb, Y., Duncan, M. J., Lyons, M., & Woodfield, L. (2007). Body fatness and physical activity levels of young children. //Annals of Human Biology//, 34(1), 1-12. doi:10.1080/03014460601079886
 * Butler, J. (1990). Performative acts and gender constitution: An essay in phenomenology and feminist theory. In S. Case (Ed.), Performing feminisms: Feminist critical theory and theatre (pp. 270-282). Baltimore, USA: Johns Hopkins University Press
 * Castelnuovo, S., & Guthrie, S., (1998). //Feminism and the female body: Liberating the Amazon within//. London, UK: Lynne Rienner.
 * Centre for Disease Control and Prevention, (2006). Physical activity and the health of young people. 2006. Retrieved 11th October 2011 from [|http://www.cdc.gov/HealthyYouth/physical activity/facts.htm]
 * Centre for Disease Control, (2010). The Association Between School-Based Physical Activity, Including Physical Education, and Academic Performance. Atlanta, GA: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Retrieved 27th September 2011 from []
 * Commonwealth Scientific Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), Preventative Health National Research Flagship, and the University of South Australia. (2007). The 2007 Australian National Children’s Nutrition and Physical Activity Survey. Retrieved 27th September 2011 from [|www.health.gov.au/internet/main/.../][|**childrens**][|-nut-phys-survey.pdf]
 * Debate, R. D., Gabriel, K., Zwald, M., Huberty, J., & Zhang, Y. (2009). Changes in Psychosocial Factors and Physical Activity Frequency Among Third- to Eighth-Grade Girls Who Participated in a Developmentally Focused Youth Sport Program: A Preliminary Study. //Journal of School Health//, 79(10), 474-484. doi:10.1111/j.1746-1561.2009.00437.x
 * Hannon, J. C., & Williams, S. M. (2008). Should Secondary Physical Education Be Coeducational or Single-Sex?. //JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance//, 79(2), 6-56. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
 * Ishee, J. H. (2005). Activity Levels in Coeducational or Single-Sex Physical Education Classes. //JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance//, 76(5), 8. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
 * Kay, T. (2003). Sport and gender. In H. Barrie (Ed.), //Sport and society// (pp. 89–104). London, UK: Sage
 * McDowell, Linda (1999). Gender, identity and place: Understanding feminist geographies. London, UK: Polity Press.
 * Marsh, H & Kleitman, S., (2003). School athletic participation: mostly gain with little pain. //Journal of Sports Exercise Psychology//, 25:205–228. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
 * Minjeong, L., & Gill, D. L. (2011). Perceived physical competence, enjoyment and effort in same-sex and coeducational physical education classes. //Educational Psychology//, 31(2), 247-260
 * Olafson, L. (2002). ""I hate phys. ed.": adolescent girls talk about physical education". //The Physical Educator (0031-8981)//, 59(2), p.67.
 * Pérez, A., Hoelscher, D.M, Springer, A.E., Brown, H.S., Barroso, C.S., Kelder, S.H. (2005) Physical activity, watching television, and the risk of obesity in students, Texas. //Preventing Chronic Disease// //2011//, 8(3). Retrieved from []
 * Roth, A. & Basow, S. A., (2004). Femininity, sports and feminism: developing a theory of physical liberation, //Journal of Sport and Social Issues//, 28(3), 245-265. Retrieved from EBSCOhost
 * Rosewarne, L, (2005). The men’s gallery: outdoor advertising and public space: gender, fear, and feminism. //Women’s Studies International Forum 28//, 67-87
 * Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2007). Active human nature: Self-determination theory and the promotion and maintenance of sport, exercise and health. In M.S. Hagger & N.L.D. Chatzisarantis (Eds.), Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in exercise and sport (pp. 120–149). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
 * Shaffer, D. R., & Wittes, E. (2006). Women’s Precollege Sports Participation, Enjoyment of Sports, and Self-esteem. //Sex Roles//, 55(3/4), 225-232. doi:10.1007/s11199-006-9074-3
 * Stevensen, B. (2007). Title IX and the evolution of high school sports. //Contemporary Economic Policy//, vol 25, no 4, 486-605. doi: 10.1111/j.1465-7287.2007.0080.x
 * Tucker Centre for Research on Girls & Women in Sport, (2007). Developing Physically Active Girls: An Evidence-Based Multidisciplinary Approach. Minnesota, USA: University of Minnesota, College of Education and Human Development.
 * U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2008). Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee report. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services.

__ Comments and reflection __
 * Australia is in a Global Mental Health Desert **

Name: Suzie Walker Student Number: n8104379 Tutor's Name: Judith Meiklejohn

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">Thank you for a great wiki and very compelling read. I found it very thought provoking as well as a sad incitement on society that we are spending a vast amount of money with little result. The artefact was painted many years ago, yet it still represents on a theoretical level societies’ views and often behaviour towards mental illness and the concept of the “Other”.

<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; font-size: 120%;">I am interested in the author’s views on the recent advertising campaign around mental illness which has the central premise of “I can control my mental illness, but I can’t control how you treat me because of it”. Do you think that is it a productive utilisation of funds which will be effective, or would money be better spent on some of the identified root causes such as unemployment and homelessness?

Name: Marianna Bork Student Number: 08278229 Tutors Name: Katie Page
 * Girls please! My mascara runs faster than you do **

I thought this was a very clever title for your wiki. The artefact was very confronting and I actually found it absolutely incredulous that horses would feature in the top ten female athletes internationally! It is, as you discuss indicative of societal views of women in sport and is reflected in media coverage levels.

I would be interested to see whether the photographic coverage you refer to of the Sydney Olympic was of a variety of female athletes or skewed towards the perceived ‘aesthetically pleasing” ones, such as sprinter Marion Jones and pole vaulter Tatiana Grigorieva? If this was the case it would serve to reinforce the inequality and divide rather than creating a level playing field.