Give+Girls+a+Go!

By: Anne-Marie Humphries | Student No: 06363962 | Tutor: Colleen Niland

 **How EQUITABLE is the Playing Field when it comes to WO MEN in SP ORT? **  //“ The practice of physical education and sport is a fundamental right for all.”// -UNESCO International Charter of Physical Education and Sport. Article 1.-

**CULTURAL ARTEFACT: //Video: “Through Her Eyes”//** media type="youtube" key="oaDFkRxDZdE" height="316" width="422" align="center"

Created by Elizabeth Stanton, founder of Throughereyes.org, this video is a multimedia project aimed at generating awareness and financial support for girls and women around the world who play or //__want to__// play sport. The video features a montage of video snippets and photos of women and girls- from around the world and from many walks of life- taking part in different sports. It highlights that sport is not only an avenue for fun, social interaction and physical activity, but it is also beneficial as it fosters participants’ strength, empowerment, and the confidence to take on the world. The video acknowledges that while there are some girls and women around the world who //are// currently participating in sports, a great proportion of the world’s females cannot. This, according to the video, is largely attributable to a worldwide inadequacy of resources, support and opportunities for female participation in sport.

The issue at hand is the inequality of opportunity for female participation in sport. Participation in sports has been proven to have numerous positive impacts on health, such as facilitating weight management, reducing or preventing the risk of chronic and degenerative diseases in later life, facilitating good mental health, stimulating psychological well-being by promoting confidence and self-esteem, and fostering social skills (Right to Play, 2007; UN DAW, 2007). While gender inequality in itself is a problematic issue, this specific inequity is considered a public health issue as girls and women are being deprived of the psychological, social and health benefits which can be gained through participation in sport (Right to Play, 2007).
 * PUBLIC HEALTH ISSUE **

This wiki investigates factors of structure, agency, and culture in order to better understand why there is often an inadequacy of resources, support and opportunities for female sport participation (UN DAW, 2007).


 * LITERATURE REVIEW **

Throughout history, men around the world have dominated the sporting arena (Hargreaves, 1994). They have outnumbered women in rates of participation in competitive and leisurely sports (Smith, 1998), have had greater access to sporting resources, and have been over-represented in sport-related leadership and employment positions (UN DAW, 2007). This female underrepresentation is disadvantageous as there are many holistic benefits to be gained from participation in sport. Sport has the ability to empower women by: building their self-esteem, confidence, tolerance, respect for others and social integration skills, and foster development of leadership traits (UN DAW, 2007). Equipped with these qualities, individuals are better prepared to achieve in all areas of life, whether it be in terms of health, education, employment, or politics (UN DAW, 2007).

While increased awareness and continuous efforts to ‘level the playing field’ over the past century has resulted in women gaining increased representation in sports over the past century (UN DAW, 2007), recent statistics from around the world prove that a large discrepancy between the genders still exists.

Quantitative studies and census data from Australia (ABS, 2009), the United Kingdom (WSFF, 2011) , Iceland (Eiosdottir, Kristjansson, Sigfusdottir & Allegrante, 2007) , and the United States (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2007) reveal that rates of sports participation among girls and women are universally lower than that of males. Due to differences in culture, economics, religion and other population demographics, each country’s individual statistics cannot be assumed to be generalisable worldwide. However, we are led to believe that perhaps there are common factors influencing the lack of female sport involvement worldwide, since such similar trends have emerged across countries.

But why is this happening? In the 2006 Census, Australian women who reported not participating in sports or physical recreation in the previous 12 months cited reasons for their non-involvement; these barriers included: cost (2% of respondents), insufficient time due to work/ study (18%), insufficient time due to family commitments (13%) and lack of interest in participating (19%) (ABS, 2009). It was also discovered from the same census cohort that a relationship existed between people’s socio-economic status and sports participation. Sports participation was lowest in the most socio-economically disadvantaged areas. The higher the relative socio-economic status of an area was, the higher the rate of sports participation amongst men and women who resided there (ABS, 2009). This trend could be a reflection of the lack of resources available in the lower socio-economic regions, lack of affordable sport and recreational activities, or a reflection of varying interests between socio-economic groups. The speculated reasons will be discussed in more detail later.

The difference in rates of sports participation between the genders may be partly related to the unequal access and distribution of resources between males and females. A report by the United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women (2007) highlights that sports resources allocated to women’s teams are often poorer in quality and less in quantity than what is provided to males. Furthermore, males often seem to get priority of shared resources such as playing fields or equipment (UN DAW, 2007), which can potentially hinder women’s opportunity to participate. This is supported by observations from Cooky’s (2009) case study of various children’s and adolescents’ sport teams in the United States. When an indoor court was shared by several teams, training sessions for boys’ teams were scheduled earlier in the evenings, while girls’ teams were left with the inconvenient times later at night. For reasons of inconvenience, travel and safety concerns, this prevented a number of girls from participating.

Awarding males preference of resources is also evident in professional levels of sports. Consider the Wimbledon Tennis Championship for example- both male and female tournaments are usually played on Centre Court at different times. However when factors like weather force the games to be played simultaneously, the men’s match is always given preference and the women are relocated to another court (Wimbledon, 2011). Wimbledon justifies this because the men’s games are considered to be more “attractive” and requiring more seats for spectators (UN DAW, 2007).

In addition to unequal access to sports resources, there also exists a widespread inequality of funding distributed to males and females. A review by the Women’s Sports Foundation (2007) found that although females made up 57% of the total population of American colleges, females receive only 45% of athletic scholarship allowances, and women’s teams are allocated a mere 38% of college sport operating dollars and 33% of funds for college team recruitment. Even head coaches for women’s teams are paid significantly less than those of male teams. The average salary for head coaches for female teams in the highest division of college completion is $850,400, while that of male teams in the same division is $1,783,100- a difference of almost a million dollars! (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2007).

Similarly, this inequality translates through to the pay professional athletes receive. In golf for example, the total prize money for the PGA tour is $265 million, while women competitors in the LPGA tour are allocated only $50million, less than a fifth of what is allocated to the men’s competition. This discrepancy is common in most other professional sports as well (Women’s Sports Foundation, 2007).

With such stark differences in payment, funding, access to resources and opportunities to participate, it is not surprising that, whether by choice or due to the aforementioned unfavourable conditions, fewer girls and women than males are participating in sports and physical recreation.

In trying to understand and redress the inequities in sport experienced by women, it may be helpful to consider various cultural factors as well as the interactions that exist between structure and agency. A major influence on the gender inequality in sport is culture. Culture imposes many norms and expectations of people’s behaviour. People may be motivated to conform to cultural norms so they fit in; or alternatively behaviours may be so entrenched through tradition that individuals do not question them (Wedeen, 2002). Throughout the world, female sports participation and the availability of resources is influenced by varying cultural norms (UN DAW, 207). Cultural expectations of girls and women that can conflict with sports participation include: expected responsibility to look after the family and take care of domestic duties, expectations to conform to constructs of femininity by being gentle and non-aggressive, and the belief that women need chaperones when venturing outside of the home to ensure their safety and dignity (Right to Play, 2007; UN DAW, 2007). To change cultural norms to be more accepting of women in sport would be the ultimate goal, but one that will take a long time to achieve. In the meantime, a practical approach that seems to be improving women’s participation in sports is the instigation of culturally-sensitive strategies that enable female sport participation (UN DAW, 2007). “Structure” can be more or less understood as enduring aspects of the social landscape that can shape individual circumstances or societal trends (Stones, 2001). Structures shape people’s practices, but in return, people’s practices form and reproduce structures (Sewell, 1992). In analysing the gender inequalities in sport, it seems that numerous structural factors could be responsible for influencing the lower rates of sport participation amongst girls and women. Such structural factors include:
 * CULTURAL & SOCIAL ANALYSIS **
 * //The financial cost of sports//. This includes the expenses for uniforms, equipment, registration fees and travel expenses. Costs are likely to influence the participation rates of females from lower socio-economic statuses, females in single-parent families where money is tight, or young girls who do not have support from parents (Cooky, 2009).
 * //Work and study demands.// These demands are likely to impact students, women in the workforce, or girls whose parents’ work demands don’t allow enough spare time to take them to sports (ABS, 2009; Right to Play, 2007).
 * //Family responsibilities.// In many cultures it is believed that it is primarily the woman’s role to nurture and take care of the family (Haynes, 2000). Thus, mothers and sisters may not have enough spare time to participate in sport (ABS, 2009; Cooky, 2009).
 * //Lack of facilities and resources.// This includes equipment, sporting facilities and transport to and from the venues. This factor may particularly be an obstacle for people living in developing countries, lower-socioeconomic neighbourhoods (Powell, Slater, Chaloupka & Harper, 2006), or rural or remote places (NRHA, 2011).
 * //Lack of funding.// This is often determined by the government or other agencies in a position to fund female sporting ventures.

In line with Giddens’ (1984) theory of //Structuration//, it is believed that structure is not solely responsible for females’ lack of participation in sports; agency also plays a part. “Agency” refers to the power that individuals have to personally control their own situation (Sewell, 1992). Factors of agency which may contribute to the lack of female participation in sports include females’ lack of interest in sport; and females’ physical inability to take part. Factors of structure and agency are inextricably intertwined. Thus, in consideration of the multitude of social and cultural factors, the complexity of the issue of gender inequality in sports can be appreciated.

After a consideration of the literature and sociological theory, I believe the video, “Through her eyes” is a good tool for pointing out the benefits of sports and raising awareness of the structural factors that contribute to the low rates of sports participation in females around the world. The video manages to do this in a way that is true to facts and fairly rational, however it seems to disregard the ‘agency’ of females by implying that the lack of funding, resources and opportunity are the only reasons girls and women are not participating in sports. What is overlooked is the fact that some girls may simply not have the desire to do so. As a female who has grown up participating in sports, I have been affected by the unequal funding and lack of choices available to females, so I could relate to the plight of this video. I have also experienced many of sport’s social, physical and psychological rewards, and I believe all people have a right enjoy sports and reap its benefits as well.
 * ARTEFACT ANALYSIS **

In completing this assessment piece, I have been able to apply sociological theory to a real world situation. It also enabled me to practice thinking critically about an issue and consider it’s various contributing factors rather than accepting what is presented at face value. As such, It has also reiterated my understanding that if issues are viewed in a ‘black-and-white’ way, the complexity of the issue’s contributing factors are probably not well understand.
 * REFLECTION **


 * Artefact Link:** []

**REFERENCES ** Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2009). //Feature article 3: Women in sport//. Retrieved from http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/abs@.nsf/Lookup/4156.0.55.001Feature+Article3May%202009

Clark, W. (2009). //Statistics Canada: Kids’ sports//. Retrieved from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-008-x/2008001/article/10573-eng.htm

Cooky, C. (2009). “Girls just aren’t interested”: the social construction of interest in girls’ sport. //Sociological Perspectives, 52//(2), 259-283. doi: 10.1525/sop.2009.52.2.259

Eiosdottir, S. P., Kristjansson, A. L., Sigfusdottir, A. D., & Allegrante, J. P. (2007). Trends in physical activity and participation in sports clubs among Icelandic adolescents. //European Journal of Public Health, 18//(3), 289-293. doi: 10.1093/eurpub/ckn004

Giddens, A. (1984). //The constitution of society.// University of California Press: California. Retrieved from GoogleBooks

Hargreaves, J. (1994). //Sporting females: Critical issues in the history and sociology of women’s sports.// Routledge: London.

Haynes, F. E. (2000). Gender and family ideals: an exploratory study of black middle-class Americans. //Journal of Family Issues, 21//(7), 811-837. doi: 10.1177/019251300021007001

National Rural Health Alliance. (2011). //Fact sheet 26: physical activity in rural Australia//. Retrieved from http://nrha.ruralhealth.org.au/cms/uploads/factsheets/Fact-Sheet-26-Physical-Activity.pdf

Powell, L. M., Slater, S., Chaloupka, F. J., & Harper, D. (2006). Availability of physical activity- related facilities and neighbourhood demographic and socioeconomic characteristics: a national study. //Journal of Public Health, 96//(9)//,// 1676-1680. doi: 10.2105/AJPH.2005.065573

Smith, L. (1998). //Nike is a goddess: the history of women in sports//. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. Retrieved from GoogleBooks.

Sewell, W. H. (1992). A theory of structure: duality, agency and transformation. //The American Journal of Sociology, 98//(1), 1-29. Retrieved from www.jstor.org

Stones, R. (2001). Refusing the realism-structuration divide. //European Journal of Social Theory, 4//(2), 177-197. doi:10.1177/1368431012222506

United Nations Division for the Advancement of Women. (2007). Women 2000 and beyond. Department of Economic and Social Affairs. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/public/Women%20and%20Sport.pdf

Wedeen, L. (2002). Conceptualizing culture: possibilities for political science. //American Political Science Review, 96//(4), 713-728. doi: 10.1017/S0003055402000400

Wimbledon. (2011). //Provisional schedule//. Retrieved from http://www.wimbledon.com/championships/spectator/schedule

Women’s Sport and Fitness Foundation. (2011). //Active People Survey 2009-10: Women’s sport Participation.// Retrieved from http://wsff.org.uk/publications/fact-sheets/active-people-survey-2009-10-womens-sport-participation

Women’s Sports Foundation. (2007). //Who’s playing college sports? Trends in participation.// Retrieved from http://66.40.5.5/Content/Research-Reports/Whos-Playing-College-Sports.aspx

Women’s Sports Foundation. (2007). //Pay inequity in athletics//. Retrieved from http://www.pay-equity.org/PDFs/athletics2007.pdf

**My Comments on other threads:** __Thread:__ Adolescent Girls too Afraid to Play Sport due to Body Image Issues __My Comment:__ //A good investigation of how body image issues affect female participation in sport. I didn’t realize that body image issues were impacting girls as young as 10! I think it's such a shame that girls lose interest in sports as they grow older, particularly since there are so many benefits to be gained. It's interesting that their participation rates begin to increase when they are 15-17 years old, I wonder why this is?// //As you pointed out, encouragement from parents and teachers and having specific programs for adolescent girls sound like effective approaches to keep girls participating in a healthy, balanced way. Very informative analysis, nice work.//

__Thread:__ Genuine or genuine photo opportunity- the truth about closing the gap __Comment:__ //The discrepancy in health between Indigenous and non-Indigenous Australians is appalling. You have to wonder why the Australian public knows so much about the poverty and poor health of people in Africa and donate money to international charities, yet know so little about the shocking situation of our own Indigenous people… how many charities have you heard of that strive to improve indigenous health? It is indeed an issue that has been swept under the rug for too long & desperately needs to be addressed.// //You've done a great job with this- well written & supported by research. Very thought provoking//